Prior to the formation of the OSS, the various departments of the executive branch, including the State, Treasury, Navy, and War Departments, conducted American intelligence activities on an ad hoc basis, with no overall direction, coordination, or control. The US Army and US Navy had separate code-breaking departments: Signal Intelligence Service and OP-20-G. (A previous code-breaking operation of the State Department, the MI-8, run by Herbert Yardley, had been shut down in 1929 by Secretary of State Henry Stimson, deeming it an inappropriate function for the diplomatic arm, because "gentlemen don't read each other's mail."[5]) The FBI was responsible for domestic security and anti-espionage operations.
I was soon requested to draft a blueprint for an American intelligence agency, the equivalent of BSC [British Security Co-ordination] and based on these British wartime improvisations... detailed tables of organisation were disclosed to Washington... among these were the organisational tables that led to the birth of General William Donovans OSS.[7]
After submitting his (and Ellis's) work, "Memorandum of Establishment of Service of Strategic Information", Donovan was appointed "Coordinator of Information" on July 11, 1941, heading the new organization known as the Office of the Coordinator of Information (COI).
William J. Donovan
Ellis, described as Donovan's "right-hand man", "effectively ran the organization".[8]
Writes Fink:
Ellis was sent from New York by William Stephenson "to Washington to open a sub-station to facilitate daily liaison with Donovan, who reciprocated by sending [future Director of Central Intelligence, DCI] Allen Welsh Dulles to liaise with BSC in the Rockefeller Center". According to Thomas F. Troy, paraphrasing Stephenson, Ellis 'was the tradecraft expert, the organization man, the one who furnished Bill Donovan with charts and memoranda on running an intelligence organization".[9]
Donovan had responsibilities but no actual powers and the existing US agencies were skeptical if not hostile to the British. Until some months after Pearl Harbor, the bulk of OSS intelligence came from the UK. British Security Co-ordination (BSC), under the direction of Ellis, trained the first OSS agents in Canada, until training stations were set up in the US with guidance from BSC instructors, who also provided information on how the SOE was arranged and managed. The British immediately made available their short-wave broadcasting capabilities to Europe, Africa, and the Far East and provided equipment for agents until American production was established.[10]
Dick Ellis
Writes Fink:
William Casey, who headed up OSS's Europe-based human-intelligence operations, the Secret Intelligence Branch, and went on to become director of the CIA, wrote in his autobiography, The Secret War Against Hitler, that Ellis was not only writing blueprints but involved in on-the-ground, logistical programs: "Dick Ellis, [an] experienced British pro, helped establish training centres, mostly around Washington." United States Assistant Secretary of State Adolf Berle commented: "The really active head of the intelligence section in [William] Donovan's [OSS] group is [Ellis] ... in other words, [Stephenson's] assistant in the British intelligence [sic] is running Donovan's intelligence service."[11]
The Office of Strategic Services was established by a Presidential military order issued by President Roosevelt on June 13, 1942, to collect and analyze strategic information required by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and to conduct special operations not assigned to other agencies. During the war, the OSS supplied policymakers with facts and estimates, but the OSS never had jurisdiction over all foreign intelligence activities. The FBI was left responsible for intelligence work in Latin America, and the Army and Navy continued to develop and rely on their own sources of intelligence.
OSS proved especially useful in providing a worldwide overview of the German war effort, its strengths and weaknesses. In direct operations it was successful in supporting Operation Torch in French North Africa in 1942, where it identified pro-Allied potential supporters and located landing sites. OSS operations in neutral countries, especially Stockholm, Sweden, provided in-depth information on German advanced technology. The Madrid station set up agent networks in France that supported the Allied invasion of southern France in 1944. Most famous were the operations in Switzerland run by Allen Dulles that provided extensive information on German strength, air defenses, submarine production, and the V-1 and V-2 weapons. It revealed some of the secret German efforts in chemical and biological warfare. Switzerland's station also supported resistance fighters in France, Austria and Italy, and helped with the surrender of German forces in Italy in 1945.[12]
For the duration of World War II, the Office of Strategic Services was conducting multiple activities and missions, including collecting intelligence by spying, performing acts of sabotage, waging propaganda war, organizing and coordinating anti-Nazi resistance groups in Europe, and providing military training for anti-Japanese guerrilla movements in Asia, among other things.[13] At the height of its influence during World War II, the OSS employed almost 24,000 people.[14]
One of the greatest accomplishments of the OSS during World War II was its penetration of Nazi Germany by OSS operatives. The OSS was responsible for training German and Austrian individuals for missions inside Germany. Some of these agents included exiled communists and Socialist party members, labor activists, anti-Nazi prisoners-of-war, and German and Jewish refugees. The OSS also recruited and ran one of the war's most important spies, the German diplomat Fritz Kolbe.
From 1943 the OSS was in contact with the Austrian resistance group around Kaplan Heinrich Maier. As a result, plans and production facilities for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft (Messerschmitt Bf 109, Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, etc.) were passed on to Allied general staffs in order to enable Allied bombers to get accurate air strikes. The Maier group informed very early about the mass murder of Jews through its contacts with the Semperit factory near Auschwitz. The group was gradually dismantled by the German authorities because of a double agent who worked for both the OSS and the Gestapo. This uncovered a transfer of money from the Americans to Vienna via Istanbul and Budapest, and most of the members were executed after a People's Court hearing.[16][17]
OSS 1st Lieutenant George Musulin behind enemy lines in German-occupied Serbia, as a Chetnik, during his first mission in November 1943. His second mission was Operation Halyard.
In 1943, the Office of Strategic Services set up operations in Istanbul.[18] Turkey, as a neutral country during the Second World War, was a place where both the Axis and Allied powers had spy networks. The railroads connecting central Asia with Europe, as well as Turkey's close proximity to the Balkan states, placed it at a crossroads of intelligence gathering. The goal of the OSS Istanbul operation called Project Net-1 was to infiltrate and extenuate subversive action in the old Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires.[18]
The head of operations at OSS Istanbul was a banker from Chicago named Lanning "Packy" Macfarland, who maintained a cover story as a banker for the American lend-lease program.[19] Macfarland hired Alfred Schwarz,[20] an Austrian businessman (* 25. April 1904 in Prostějov, Austria-Hungary; † 13. August 1988 in Lucerne, Switzerland) who came to be known as "Dogwood" and ended up establishing the Dogwood information chain.[21] Dogwood in turn hired a personal assistant named Walter Arndt and established himself as an employee of the Istanbul Western Electrik Kompani.[21] Through Schwarz and Arndt the OSS was able to infiltrate anti-fascist groups in Austria, Hungary, and Germany. Schwarz was able to convince Romanian, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and Swiss diplomatic couriers to smuggle American intelligence information into these territories and establish contact with elements antagonistic to the Nazis and their collaborators.[22] Couriers and agents memorized information and produced analytical reports; when they were not able to memorize effectively they recorded information on microfilm and hid it in their shoes or hollowed pencils.[23] Through this process information about the Nazi regime made its way to Macfarland and the OSS in Istanbul and eventually to Washington.
While the OSS "Dogwood-chain" produced a lot of information, its reliability was increasingly questioned by British intelligence. By May 1944, through collaboration between the OSS, British intelligence, Cairo, and Washington, the entire Dogwood-chain was found to be unreliable and dangerous.[23] Planting phony information into the OSS was intended to misdirect the resources of the Allies. Schwarz's Dogwood-chain, which was the largest American intelligence gathering tool in occupied territory, was shortly thereafter shut down.[24]
The OSS purchased Soviet code and cipher material (or Finnish information on them) from émigré Finnish army officers in late 1944. Secretary of State Edward Stettinius, Jr., protested that this violated an agreement President Roosevelt made with the Soviet Union not to interfere with Soviet cipher traffic from the United States. General Donovan might have copied the papers before returning them the following January, but there is no record of Arlington Hall receiving them, and CIA and NSA archives have no surviving copies. This codebook was in fact used as part of the Venonadecryption effort, which helped uncover large-scale Soviet espionage in North America.[25]
RYPE was the codename of the airborne unit who was dropped in the Norwegian mountains of Snåsa on March 24, 1945 to carry out sabotage actions behind enemy lines. From the base at the Gjefsjøen mountain farm, the group conducted successful railroad sabotages, with the intention of preventing the withdrawal of German forces from northern Norway. Operasjon Rype was the only U.S. operation on German-occupied Norwegian soil during WW2. The group consisted mainly of Norwegian Americans recruited from the 99th Infantry Battalion. Operasjon Rype was led by William Colby.[26]
The OSS sent four teams of two under Captain Stephen Vinciguerra (codename Algonquin, teams Alsace, Poissy, S&S and Student), with Operation Varsity in March 1945 to infiltrate and report from behind enemy lines, but none succeeded. Team S&S had two agents in Wehrmacht uniforms and a captured Kϋbelwagon; to report by radio. But the Kϋbelwagon was put out of action while in the glider; three tires and the long-range radio were shot up (German gunners were told to attack the gliders not the tow planes).[27]
The OSS espionage and sabotage operations produced a steady demand for highly specialized equipment.[13] General Donovan invited experts, organized workshops, and funded labs that later formed the core of the Research & Development Branch.[28] Boston chemist Stanley P. Lovell became its first head, and Donovan humorously called him his "Professor Moriarty".[29]: 101 Throughout the war years, the OSS Research & Development successfully adapted Allied weapons and espionage equipment, and produced its own line of novel spy tools and gadgets, including silenced pistols, lightweight sub-machine guns, "Beano" grenades that exploded upon impact, explosives disguised as lumps of coal ("Black Joe") or bags of Chinese flour ("Aunt Jemima"), acetone time delay fuses for limpet mines, compasses hidden in uniform buttons, playing cards that concealed maps, a 16mm Kodak camera in the shape of a matchbox, tasteless poison tablets ("K" and "L" pills), and cigarettes laced with tetrahydrocannabinol acetate (an extract of Indian hemp) to induce uncontrollable chattiness.[29][30][31]
The OSS also developed innovative communication equipment such as wiretap gadgets, electronic beacons for locating agents, and the "Joan-Eleanor" portable radio system that made it possible for operatives on the ground to establish secure contact with a plane that was preparing to land or drop cargo. The OSS Research & Development also printed fake German and Japanese-issued identification cards, and various passes, ration cards, and counterfeit money.[32]
On August 28, 1943, Stanley Lovell was asked to make a presentation in front of a hostile Joint Chiefs of Staff, who were skeptical of OSS plans beyond collecting military intelligence and were ready to split the OSS between the Army and the Navy.[33]: 5–7 While explaining the purpose and mission of his department and introducing various gadgets and tools, he reportedly casually dropped into a waste basket a Hedy, a panic-inducing explosive device in the shape of a firecracker, which shortly produced a loud shrieking sound followed by a deafening boom. The presentation was interrupted and did not resume since everyone in the room fled. In reality, the Hedy, jokingly named after Hollywood movie star Hedy Lamarr for her ability to distract men, later saved the lives of some trapped OSS operatives.[34]: 184–185
Not all projects worked. Some ideas were odd, such as a failed attempt to use insects to spread anthrax in Spain.[35]: 150–151 Stanley Lovell was later quoted saying, "It was my policy to consider any method whatever that might aid the war, however unorthodox or untried".[36]
In 1939, a young physician named Christian J. Lambertsen developed an oxygen rebreather set (the Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit) and demonstrated it to the OSS—after already being rejected by the U.S. Navy—in a pool at the Shoreham Hotel in Washington D.C., in 1942.[37][38] The OSS not only bought into the concept, they hired Lambertsen to lead the program and build up the dive element for the organization.[38] His responsibilities included training and developing methods of combining self-contained diving and swimmer delivery including the Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit for the OSS "Operational Swimmer Group".[37][39] Growing involvement of the OSS with coastal infiltration and water-based sabotage eventually led to creation of the OSS Maritime Unit.
Facilities
At Camp X, near Whitby, Ontario, an "assassination and elimination" training program was operated by the British Special Operations Executive, assigning exceptional masters in the art of knife-wielding combat, such as William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes, to instruct trainees. Many members of the Office of Strategic Services also were trained there. It was dubbed "the school of mayhem and murder" by George Hunter White who trained at the facility in the 1950s.[citation needed]
From these incipient beginnings, the Office of Strategic Services opened camps in the United States, and finally abroad. Prince William Forest Park (then known as Chopawamsic Recreational Demonstration Area) was the site of an OSS training camp that operated from 1942 to 1945. Area "C", consisting of approximately 6,000 acres (24 km2), was used extensively for communications training, whereas Area "A" was used for training some of the OGs (Operational Groups).[40]Catoctin Mountain Park, now the location of Camp David, was the site of OSS training Area "B" where the first Special Operations, or SO, were trained.[41]Special Operations was modeled after Great Britain's Special Operations Executive, which included parachute, sabotage, self-defense, weapons, and leadership training to support guerrilla or partisan resistance.[42] Considered most mysterious of all was the "cloak and dagger" Secret Intelligence, or SI branch.[43] Secret Intelligence employed "country estates as schools for introducing recruits into the murky world of espionage. Thus, it established Training Areas E and RTU-11 ("the Farm") in spacious manor houses with surrounding horse farms."[44]Morale Operations training included psychological warfare and propaganda.[45] The Congressional Country Club (Area F) in Bethesda, Maryland, was the primary OSS training facility. The Facilities of the Catalina Island Marine Institute at Toyon Bay on Santa Catalina Island, Calif., are composed (in part) of a former OSS survival training camp. The National Park Service commissioned a study of OSS National Park training facilities by Professor John Chambers of Rutgers University.[46]
The main OSS training camps abroad were located initially in Great Britain, French Algeria, and Egypt; later as the Allies advanced, a school was established in southern Italy. In the Far East, OSS training facilities were established in India, Ceylon, and then China. The London branch of the OSS, its first overseas facility, was at 70 Grosvenor Street, W1. In addition to training local agents, the overseas OSS schools also provided advanced training and field exercises for graduates of the training camps in the United States and for Americans who enlisted in the OSS in the war zones. The most famous of the latter was Virginia Hall in France.[46]
The OSS's Mediterranean training center in Cairo, Egypt, known to many as the Spy School, was a lavish palace belonging to King Farouk's brother-in-law, called Ras el Kanayas.[47][48][self-published source?] It was modeled after the SOE's training facility STS 102 in Haifa, Palestine.[49][self-published source?] Americans whose heritage stemmed from Italy, Yugoslavia, and Greece were trained at the "Spy School"[50] and also sent for parachute, weapons, and commando training, and Morse code and encryption lessons at STS 102.[51][52][53] After completion of their spy training, these agents were sent back on missions to the Balkans and Italy where their accents would not pose a problem for their assimilation.[54][55]
OSS soldiers were primarily inducted from the United States Armed Forces. Other members included foreign nationals including displaced individuals from the former czarist Russia, an example being Prince Serge Obolensky.
Donovan sought independent thinkers, and in order to bring together those many intelligent, quick-witted individuals who could think out-of-the box, he chose them from all walks of life, backgrounds, without distinction to culture or religion. Donovan was quoted as saying, "I'd rather have a young lieutenant with enough guts to disobey a direct order than a colonel too regimented to think for himself." In a matter of a few short months, he formed an organization which equalled and then rivalled Great Britain's Secret Intelligence Service and its Special Operations Executive. Donovan, inspired by Britain's SOE, assembled an outstanding group of clinical psychologists to carry out evaluations of potential OSS candidates at a variety of sites, primary among these was Station S in Northern Virginia near where Dulles International Airport now stands.[59] Recent research from remaining records from the OSS Station S program describes how those characteristics (independent thought, effective intelligence, interpersonal skills) were found among OSS candidates [60]
Julia Child, who later authored cookbooks, worked directly under Donovan.[63]
René JoyeuseM.D., MS, FACS was a Swiss, French and American soldier, physician and researcher, who distinguished himself as an agent of Allied intelligence in German-occupied France during World War II. He received the US Army Distinguished Service Cross for his actions with the OSS, after the war he became a Physician, Researcher and was a co-founder of The American Trauma Society.[64][65]
"Jumping Joe" Savoldi (code name Sampson) was recruited by the OSS in 1942 because of his hand-to-hand combat and language skills as well as his deep knowledge of the Italian geography and Benito Mussolini's compound. He was assigned to the Special Operations branch and took part in missions in North Africa, Italy, and France during 1943–1945.[66][67][68]
OSS created this false ID for Joe Savoldi - posing as Giuseppe De Leo while infiltrating the black market in Naples.
One of the forefathers of today's commandos was Navy Lieutenant Jack Taylor. He was sequestered by the OSS early in the war and had a long career behind enemy lines.[69]
Taro and Mitsu Yashima, both Japanese political dissidents who were imprisoned in Japan for protesting its militarist regime, worked for the OSS in psychological warfare against the Japanese Empire.[70][71]
Nisei linguists
In late 1943, a representative from OSS visited the 442nd Infantry Regiment looking to recruit volunteers willing to undertake "extremely hazardous assignment."[72] All selected were Nisei. The recruits were assigned to OSS Detachments 101 and 202, in the China-Burma-India Theater. "Once deployed, they were to interrogate prisoners, translate documents, monitor radio communications, and conduct covert operations... Detachment 101 and 102's clandestine operations were extremely successful."[72]
Dissolution into other agencies
On September 20, 1945, President Truman signed Executive Order 9621, terminating the OSS.[73] Due to administrative error, the order only allowed the agency ten days to close.[74] The State Department took over the Research and Analysis Branch; it became the Bureau of Intelligence and Research, The War Department took over the Secret Intelligence (SI) and Counter-Espionage (X-2) Branches, which were then housed in the new Strategic Services Unit (SSU). Brigadier General John Magruder (formerly Donovan's Deputy Director for Intelligence in OSS) became the new SSU director. He oversaw the liquidation of the OSS and managed the institutional preservation of its clandestine intelligence capability.[75]
In January 1946, President Truman created the Central Intelligence Group (CIG),[76] which was the direct precursor to the CIA. SSU assets, which now constituted a streamlined "nucleus" of clandestine intelligence, were transferred to the CIG in mid-1946 and reconstituted as the Office of Special Operations (OSO). The National Security Act of 1947 established the Central Intelligence Agency, which then took up some OSS functions. The direct descendant of the paramilitary component of the OSS is the CIA Special Activities Division.[77]
Today, the joint-branch United States Special Operations Command, founded in 1987, uses the same spearhead design on its insignia, as homage to its indirect lineage. The Defense Intelligence Agency currently manages the OSS' mandate to provide strategic military intelligence to the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Secretary of Defense and to coordinate human espionage activities across the United States Armed Forces (through the Defense Clandestine Service) and was awarded status as an OSS Heritage organization by the OSS Society.
^Stimson, Henry L. On Active Service in Peace and War (1948). perBartlett's Familiar Quotations, 16th ed.
^Spector, Ronald H. (2007). In the ruins of empire : the Japanese surrender and the battle for postwar Asia (1st ed.). New York. p. 8. ISBN9780375509155.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^Fink, Jesse (2023). The Eagle in the Mirror. Edinburgh: Black & White Publishing. p. 96. ISBN9781785305108.
^Fink, Jesse (2023). The Eagle in the Mirror. Edinburgh: Black & White Publishing. p. 95. ISBN9781785305108.
^Fink, Jesse (2023). The Eagle in the Mirror. Edinburgh: Black & White Publishing. pp. 95–96. ISBN9781785305108.
^The Secret History of British Intelligence in the Americas, 1940-1945, p27-28
^Fink, Jesse (2023). The Eagle in the Mirror. Edinburgh: Black & White Publishing. p. 97. ISBN9781785305108.
^G.J.A. O'Toole, Honorable Treachery: A History of U. S. Intelligence, Espionage, and Covert Action from the American Revolution to the CIA pp 418-19.
^ abSmith, R. Harris. OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972.
^Chambers II, John Whiteclay (2008). "2"(PDF). OSS Training in the National Parks and Service Abroad in World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. National Park Service. p. 40. ISBN978-1511654760.
^Chambers II, John Whiteclay (2008). "2"(PDF). OSS Training in the National Parks and Service Abroad in World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. National Park Service. p. 40. ISBN978-1511654760.
^Chambers II, John Whiteclay (2008). "2"(PDF). OSS Training in the National Parks and Service Abroad in World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. National Park Service. p. 35. ISBN978-1511654760.
^Chambers II, John Whiteclay (2008). "11"(PDF). OSS Training in the National Parks and Service Abroad in World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. National Park Service. p. 558. ISBN978-1511654760.
^Chambers II, John Whiteclay (2008). "2"(PDF). OSS Training in the National Parks and Service Abroad in World War II. Washington, DC: U.S. National Park Service. p. 43. ISBN978-1511654760.
^Hueck Allen, Susan (2013), "7", Classical Spies: American Archaeologists with the OSS in World War II Greece, Ann Arbor, Michigan: The University of Michigan, p. 134, ISBN978-0472117697
^William J. Donovan, William Fairbairn, William Stephenson, Frank Gleason, Guy D'Artois, Helias Doundoulakis (2014). World War II Spy School (Film). USA, Canada: YAP Films.
^Office of Strategic Services Assessment Staff (1948). Assessment of men: Selection of personnel for the Office of Strategic Services. New York: Rinehart.
^Lenzenweger, Mark F. (2015). "Factors Underlying the Psychological and Behavioral Characteristics of Office of Strategic Services Candidates: The Assessment of Men Data Revisited". Journal of Personality Assessment. 97 (1): 100–110. doi:10.1080/00223891.2014.935980. PMID25036728. S2CID9440624.
^Lewin, Ben (Director) (2018). The Catcher Was a Spy (Movie). United States, Japan, Yugoslavia.
^Cloak and Dagger: The Secret Story of the Office of Strategic Services Chapter IX "The Saga of Jumping Joe" page 150
^Wild Bill Donovan: The Last Hero by Anthony Cave Brown page 352 and Savoldi's personal notes from July 8–16, 1943 (now in the possession of family members.)
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Bank, Aaron. From OSS to Green Berets: The Birth of Special Forces (Novato, CA: Presidio, 1986) ISBN0891412719
Bartholomew-Feis, Dixee R. The OSS and Ho Chi Minh: Unexpected Allies in the War against Japan (Lawrence : University Press of Kansas, 2006) ISBN0700614311
Bernstein, Barton J. "Birth of the U.S. biological warfare program" Scientific American 256: 116 – 121, 1987.
Brown, Anthony Cave. The Last Hero: Wild Bill Donovan (New York: Times Books, 1982) ISBN0812910214
Brunner, John W. OSS Weapons. Phillips Publications, Williamstown, N.J., 1994. ISBN0-932572-21-9.
Burke, Michael. "Outrageous Good Fortune: A Memoir" (Boston-Toronto: Little, Brown and Company)
Chalou, George C. (ed.) The Secrets War: The Office of Strategic Services in World War II (Washington: National Archives and Records Administration, 1991) ISBN0911333916
Chambers II, John Whiteclay. OSS Training in the National Parks and Service Abroad in World War II (NPS, 2008) online; chapters 1-2 and 8-11 provide a useful summary history of OSS by a scholar.
Cibulka, Erich. Deckname Dogwood. Erinnerungen an Alfred Schwarz. Buchschmiede, Wien 2022, ISBN978-3-99139-139-5
Dawidoff, Nicholas. The Catcher was a Spy: The Mysterious Life of Moe Berg ( New York: Vintage Books, 1994) ISBN0679415661
Fink, Jesse. The Eagle in the Mirror (Edinburgh: Black & White Publishing, 2023) ISBN9781785305108
Ford, Corey. Donovan of OSS (Boston: Little, Brown, 1970) OCLC836436423
Ford, Corey, MacBain A. "Cloak and Dagger: The Secret Story of O.S.S." (New York: Random House 1945,1946) OCLC1504392
Grose, Peter. Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994) ISBN0395516072
Hassell, A, and MacRae, S: Alliance of Enemies: The Untold Story of the Secret American and German Collaboration to End World War II, Thomas Dunne Books, 2006. ISBN0312323697
Hunt, E. Howard. American Spy, 2007
Jakub, Jay. Spies and Saboteurs: Anglo-American Collaboration and Rivalry in Human Intelligence Collection and Special Operations, 1940–45 (New York: St. Martin's, 1999)
Jones, Ishmael. The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture (New York: Encounter Books, 2008, rev 2010) ISBN9781594032745
Katz, Barry M. Foreign Intelligence: Research and Analysis in the Office of Strategic Services, 1942–1945 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989)
Kent, Sherman. Strategic Intelligence for American Foreign Policy (Hamden, CT: Archon, 1965 [1949])
Lisle, John (2023). The Dirty Tricks Department: Stanley Lovell, the OSS, and the Masterminds of World War II Secret Warfare (First ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN978-1-250-28024-4. OCLC1343299425.
Mauch, Christof. The Shadow War Against Hitler: The Covert Operations of America's Wartime Secret Intelligence Service (2005), scholarly history of OSS.
Melton, H. Keith. OSS Special Weapons and Equipment: Spy Devices of World War II (New York: Sterling Publishing, 1991) ISBN0806982381
Moulin, Pierre. U.S. Samurais in Bruyeres (CPL Editions: Luxembourg, 1993) ISBN2959998405
Paulson, A.C. 1989. OSS Silenced Pistol. Machine Gun News. 3(6):28-30.
Paulson, A.C. 1995. OSS Weapons. Fighting Firearms. 3(2):20-21,80-81.
Paulson, A.C. 2002. HDMS silenced .22 pistols in Vietnam. The Small Arms Review. 5(7):119-120.
Paulson, A.C. 2003. WWII vintage silent .22LR [High Standard OSS HDMS pistol]. Guns & Weapons for Law Enforcement. 15(2):24-29,72.
Persico, Joseph E. Roosevelt's Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage (2001).
Persico, Joseph E. Piercing the Reich: The Penetration of Nazi Germany by American Secret Agents During World War II (New York: Viking, 1979) Reprinted in 1997 by Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN076070242X
Peterson, Neal H. (ed.) From Hitler's Doorstep: The Wartime Intelligence Reports of Allen Dulles, 1942–1945 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996)
Pinck, Daniel C. Journey to Peking: A Secret Agent in Wartime China (Naval Institute Press, 2003) ISBN1591146771
Pinck, Daniel C., Jones, Geoffrey M.T. and Pinck, Charles T. (eds.) Stalking the History of the Office of Strategic Services: An OSS Bibliography (Boston: OSS/Donovan Press, 2000) ISBN0967573602
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Smith, Bradley F. and Agarossi, Elena. Operation Sunrise: The Secret Surrender (New York: Basic Books, 1979) ISBN0465052908
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Disney ChannelDiluncurkan 18 April 1983; 40 tahun lalu (1983-04-18) Juli 2002; 21 tahun lalu (2002-07) Pemilik Disney General Entertainment Content (untuk AS) The Walt Disney Company (Southeast Asia) Pte. Ltd. (untuk Indonesia) Negara Amerika Serikat Indonesia Bahasa Inggris Spanyol Indonesia (untuk Indonesia) Disney Channel! (Sebelumnya The Disney Channel) adalah salah satu saluran televisi 24 jam non-stop yang dimiliki oleh Disney. Program-program dari saluran ini kebanya…
American online service for haulage companies This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) DAT Freight & AnalyticsTypeSubsidiary of Roper TechnologiesIndustryTruckload shippingFounded1978HeadquartersBeaverton, Oregon, United StatesProductsTran…
العلاقات اليابانية الإيطالية اليابان إيطاليا اليابان إيطاليا تعديل مصدري - تعديل العلاقات اليابانية الإيطالية هي العلاقات الثنائية التي تجمع بين اليابان وإيطاليا.[1][2][3][4][5] مقارنة بين البلدين هذه مقارنة عامة ومرجعية للدولتين: وجه المق…
هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (يوليو 2019) ريك هايوارد معلومات شخصية الميلاد 17 مارس 1952 (71 سنة) ناساو مواطنة باهاماس الحياة العملية المدرسة الأم جامعة إدنبرةمدرسة جوردونستون المهنة رجل أعم
Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Peta (disambiguasi). Pembela Tanah Air郷土防衛義勇軍Kyōdo Bōei GiyūgunBendera batalion PETAAktif3 Oktober 1943–19 Agustus 1945Negara Indonesia (pendudukan Jepang)Aliansi Angkatan Darat Kekaisaran JepangTipe unitInfanteriPeranPertahanan wilayah Indonesia dari serangan Blok SekutuJumlah personelca. 37.400 personel (1945)MarkasBogor, Jawa BaratJulukanPETAMotoIndonesia Akan MerdekaWarna panji Ungu Hijau Merah PutihHimneMar…
This article uses bare URLs, which are uninformative and vulnerable to link rot. Please consider converting them to full citations to ensure the article remains verifiable and maintains a consistent citation style. Several templates and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as reFill (documentation) and Citation bot (documentation). (August 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) UN Academic ImpactAbbreviationUNAIFormation18 November 2010; 13 years ago …
Libertad Boca de la estación, 2018.UbicaciónCoordenadas 33°26′23″S 70°40′26″O / -33.439601266558, -70.673917633912Dirección Catedral esq. LibertadComuna SantiagoLocalidad Barrio YungayDatos de la estaciónN.º de andenes 2N.º de vías 2Propietario Metro de SantiagoServicios detalladosPosición SubterráneaLíneas Quinta Normal ← → Cumming [editar datos en Wikidata] No debe confundirse con Estación Yungay. Libertad (también conocida como estación Yun…
Geographical and cultural region in southern Greece Map of Modern Mani The Mani Peninsula (Greek: Μάνη, romanized: Mánē), also long known by its medieval name Maina or Maïna (Μαΐνη), is a geographical and cultural region in the Peloponnese of Southern Greece and home to the Maniots (Mανιάτες, Maniátes in Greek), who claim descent from the ancient Spartans. The capital city of Mani is Areopoli. Mani is the central of three peninsulas which extend southwards from the Pelop…
Estádio Rei Pelé The following is a list of stadiums in South America. List Argentina Buenos Aires Lawn Tennis Club – Buenos Aires Estadio 15 de Abril – Santa Fe Estadio 23 de Agosto - San Salvador de Jujuy Estadio Alberto J. Armando – Buenos Aires Estadio Brigadier Estanislao López – Santa Fe Estadio Ciudad de La Plata – Ciudad de La Plata Estadio Ciudad de Vicente López – Vicente Lopez Estadio Diego Armando Maradona – Buenos Aires Estadio Don León Kolbovski – Buenos Aires …
Japanese anime television series Special 7: Special Crime Investigation UnitSpecial 7: Special Crime Investigation Unit key visual警視庁 特務部 特殊凶悪犯対策室 第七課 -トクナナ-(Keishichou Tokumu-bu Tokushu Kyouaku-han Taisaku-Shitsu Dai-Nana-ka -Tokunana-)GenreCrime[1] Anime television seriesDirected byTakayuki Kuriyama (chief)Harume KosakaWritten byYuichiro HigashideMusic byRyō TakahashiStudioANIMA&CO.Licensed byFunimationOriginal networkA…
Canadian concert venue This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Phoenix Concert Theatre – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Phoenix Concert TheatreEntrance to the Phoenix.Former namesThe Diamond (1984-1991)Location410 Sherbour…
Type of financial services company The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (December 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Financial market participants Organisations Credit unions Insurance companies Investment banks Investment funds Pension funds Prime brokers Trusts Terms Finance Financial market Participants Co…
Зауважте, Вікіпедія не дає медичних порад!Якщо у вас виникли проблеми зі здоров'ям — зверніться до лікаря. Рубрики Підрубрики Нозології Умовні знаки та скорочення клініко-статистичної класифікації хвороб, розробленої на базі МКХ-10:[1][2][3] ( ) — містять додатк…
2005 video game 2005 video gameMadagascarNorth American GameCube box artDeveloper(s)Toys for Bob (PS2, Xbox, GC)Beenox (PC)Vicarious Visions (GBA, NDS)Publisher(s)ActivisionDirector(s)Paul Reiche IIIFred FordProducer(s)Iana IasielloAlex NessDesigner(s)Toby SchadtMike EbertProgrammer(s)Peter LipsonRobert LeylandJamie DavisArtist(s)Terrence C. FallsAlec FranklinWriter(s)Billy FrolickAlex NessKelly WandKelly ByrdComposer(s)Michael WandmacherSeriesMadagascarEngineRenderWarePlatform(s)Game Boy Advanc…
Suburb of Sydney, New South Wales, AustraliaCamden SouthSydney, New South WalesAerial view of the suburb Camden South. Camden is towards the top of the picture, Remembrance Driveway is through the middle and the Nepean River is in the top right.Population4,539 (2016 census)[1]Postcode(s)2570Elevation86 m (282 ft)Location70 km (43 mi) SW of Sydney CBDLGA(s)Camden CouncilState electorate(s)CamdenFederal division(s)Hume Suburbs around Camden South: Cawdor Camde…
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Birbhadra Shah – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Prince (Yubarajdhiraj) of Gorkha Birbhadra ShahPrince (Yubarajdhiraj) of GorkhaPosthumous painting of Birbhadra ShahBornGorkha KingdomDie…
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Cut Numbers AuthorNick ToschesCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishGenreNovelPublisherHarmony (USA)Publication dateJune 15, 1988 (USA)Media typePrint (Hardback & Paperback)Pages233 pp (hardback first edition)ISBN0-517-56870-5Dewey Decimal813/.54 19LC ClassPS3570.O74 C88 1988 Cut Numbers is the first novel by Nick Tosches.[1][2] It involves small-time criminals struggling to maintain the financial viability of their cut numbers game after the implementation of the New …