Share to: share facebook share twitter share wa share telegram print page

Edict of Nantes

Henry IV of France, By the Grace of God, Most Christian King of France and Navarre
The Edict of Nantes

The Edict of Nantes (French: édit de Nantes) was signed in April 1598 by King Henry IV and granted the minority Calvinist Protestants of France, also known as Huguenots, substantial rights in the nation, which was predominantly Catholic.

While upholding Catholicism as the established religion, and requiring the re-establishment of Catholic worship in places it had lapsed,[1]: 721  it granted religious toleration to the Protestant Huguenots, who had been waging a long and bloody struggle for their rights in France. The main contents were:[2][3]

  • Freedom of conscience and the right to practice their religion (Protestantism) in certain specified towns and cities throughout France.
  • The right to hold public office, including the right to serve as judges and administrators, without having to renounce their religion.
  • The right to maintain their own schools and universities, and to receive government funding for them.
  • The right to fortify their towns and cities for their own protection.
  • The right to maintain their own military forces (known as the "Huguenot militia"), which were to be paid for by the French government.
  • The right to engage in certain specified trades and professions, including the manufacture and sale of textiles and arms.
  • The right to travel freely throughout France, without being subject to searches or seizures of their property.
  • The right to bury their dead in their own cemeteries.

The Edict of Nantes helped to end the Wars of Religion in France, which had been raging for decades. It also ensured that the Protestant minority in France would have a measure of religious and political freedom, and helped to establish France as a more tolerant and pluralistic society. However, the Edict was eventually revoked by King Louis XIV in 1685, leading to a mass exodus of Huguenots from France and a loss of talent and resources for the country.

In this edict, Henry aimed primarily to promote civil unity.[a] The edict separated civil from religious unity, treated some Protestants for the first time as more than mere schismatics and heretics and opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering a general freedom of conscience to individuals, the edict offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field, even for the state, and to bring grievances directly to the king. It successfully marked the end of the French Wars of Religion, which had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century.

The Edict of St. Germain, promulgated 36 years earlier by Catherine de Médici, had granted limited tolerance to Huguenots but was overtaken by events, as it was not formally registered until after the Massacre of Vassy on 1 March 1562, which triggered the first of the French Wars of Religion.

The Edict of Fontainebleau, which revoked the Edict of Nantes in October 1685, was promulgated by Louis XIV, the grandson of Henry IV. This act drove an exodus of Protestants and increased the hostility of Protestant nations bordering France.

Background

The edict aimed primarily to end the longrunning French Wars of Religion.[b]

King Henry IV also had personal reasons for supporting the edict. Prior to assuming the throne in 1589, he had espoused Protestantism, and he remained sympathetic to the Protestant cause. It was widely believed that he converted to Catholicism in 1593 only to secure his position as king. The edict succeeded in restoring peace and internal unity to France but pleased neither party. Catholics rejected the apparent recognition of Protestantism as a permanent element in French society and still hoped to enforce religious uniformity. Protestants aspired to full parity with Catholics, which the edict did not provide. George A. Rothrock wrote : "Toleration in France was a royal notion, and the religious settlement was dependent upon the continued support of the crown".[4]

Re-establishing royal authority in France required internal peace, which was based on limited toleration enforced by the crown. Since royal troops could not be everywhere, Huguenots needed to be granted strictly-limited possibilities of self-defense.[4]

Terms

Henry IV of France by Frans Pourbus the younger.

The Edict of Nantes that Henry IV signed had four basic texts, including a main text made up of 92 articles that was largely based on unsuccessful peace treaties signed during the recent wars. The edict also included 56 "particular" (secret) articles dealing with Protestant rights and obligations. For example, the French state guaranteed protection of French Protestants travelling abroad from the Inquisition. "This crucifies me", protested Pope Clement VIII upon hearing of the edict. The last two parts consisted of brevets (letters patent), which contained the military clauses and pastoral clauses. Both brevets were withdrawn in 1629 by Louis XIII after a final religious civil war.

The two letters patent[5] supplementing the edict granted the Protestants safe havens (places de sûreté), which were military strongholds such as La Rochelle, in support of which the king paid 180,000 écus a year, along with a further 150 emergency forts (places de refuge), to be maintained at the Huguenots' own expense. Such an act of toleration was unusual in Western Europe,[c] where standard practice forced subjects to follow the religion of their ruler under the application of the principle of cuius regio, eius religio.

While it granted certain privileges to Huguenots, the edict upheld Catholicism's position as the established religion of France. Protestants gained no exemption from paying the tithe[d] and had to respect Catholic holidays and restrictions regarding marriage. The authorities limited Protestant freedom of worship to specified geographic areas. The edict dealt only with Protestant and Catholic coexistence and made no mention of Jews or Muslims, who were offered temporary asylum in France when the Marranos and Moriscos were expelled from Spain.[e]

The original act that promulgated the edict has disappeared. The Archives Nationales in Paris preserves only the text of a shorter document modified by concessions extracted from the King by the clergy and the Parlement of Paris, which delayed ten months before finally signing and setting seals to the document in 1599. A copy of the first edict, sent for safekeeping to the Protestant Geneva, survives. The provincial parlements resisted the edict. The most recalcitrant of them was the Parlement of Rouen, which unreservedly registered the edict only in 1609.[7]

The location of the signing is uncertain. The edict itself stated merely that it was "given at Nantes, in the month of April, in the year of Our Lord one thousand five hundred and ninety-eight". By the late 19th century the Catholic tradition[8] cited the signing in the Maison des Tourelles, the home of the prosperous Spanish trader André Ruiz, which was destroyed by bombing during the Second World War.

Revocation

Louis XIV, by Hyacinthe Rigaud

The Edict remained unaltered in effect, registered by the parlements as "fundamental and irrevocable law", with the exception of the brevets, which had been granted for a period of eight years, and were renewed by Henry in 1606 and in 1611 by Marie de Médecis, who confirmed the Edict within a week of the assassination of Henry, stilling Protestant fears of another St. Bartholomew's Day massacre. The subsidies had been reduced by degrees, as Henry gained more control of the nation.[9] By the Peace of Montpellier in 1622, concluding a Huguenot revolt in Languedoc, the fortified Protestant towns were reduced to two, La Rochelle and Montauban. The brevets were entirely withdrawn in 1629, by Louis XIII, following the Siege of La Rochelle, in which Cardinal Richelieu blockaded the city for fourteen months.

During the remainder of Louis XIII's reign, and especially during the minority of Louis XIV, the implementation of the Edict varied year by year, voiced in declarations and orders, and in case decisions in the Council, fluctuating according to the tides of domestic politics and the relations of France with powers abroad.[10]

In October 1685, Louis XIV, the grandson of Henry IV, renounced the Edict and declared Protestantism illegal with the Edict of Fontainebleau. This act, commonly called the 'revocation of the Edict of Nantes,' had very damaging results for France. While the wars of religion did not re-ignite, intense persecution of Protestants took place. All Protestant ministers were given two weeks to leave the country unless they converted to Catholicism and all other Protestants were prohibited from leaving the country. In spite of the prohibition, the renewed persecution – including many examples of torture – caused as many as 400,000 to flee France at risk of their lives.[11][12] Most moved to Great Britain, Prussia, the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, South Africa and the new French colonies and the Thirteen Colonies in North America.[13] Some even moved to Denmark, where the city of Fredericia, laid waste after the Swedish conquest in 1656, needed new settlers and a specific clause in the city ordinance allowed other than Lutheran-Protestants to live in the city.[14] This exodus deprived France of many of its most skilled and industrious individuals, some of whom thenceforward aided France's rivals in the Netherlands and in England. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes also further damaged the perception of Louis XIV abroad, making the Protestant nations bordering France even more hostile to his regime. Upon the revocation of the edict, Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg issued the Edict of Potsdam, which encouraged Protestants to come to Brandenburg-Prussia.

Freedom to worship and civil rights for non-Catholics in France were not restored until the signing of the Edict of Versailles, also known as the Edict of Tolerance, by Louis XVI 102 years later, on 7 November 1787. This edict was enacted by parlement two months later, less than two years before the end of the Ancien Régime and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789 would fully eliminate religious discrimination in France.[15]

Translation of selected passages

These are the principal and most salient provisions of the edict as promulgated in Nantes, Brittany, probably on 30 April 1598:[16]

Henri, by the grace of God king of France and of Navarre, to all to whom these presents come, greeting:

Among the infinite benefits which it has pleased God to heap upon us, the most signal and precious is his granting us the strength and ability to withstand the fearful disorders and troubles which prevailed on our advent in this kingdom. The realm was so torn by innumerable factions and sects that the most legitimate of all the parties was fewest in numbers. God has given us strength to stand out against this storm; we have finally surmounted the waves and made our port of safety,—peace for our state. For which his be the glory all in all, and ours a free recognition of his grace in making use of our instrumentality in the good work.... We implore and await from the Divine Goodness the same protection and favor which he has ever granted to this kingdom from the beginning....

We have, by this perpetual and irrevocable edict, established and proclaimed and do establish and proclaim:

I. First, that the recollection of everything done by one party or the other between March, 1585, and our accession to the crown, and during all the preceding period of troubles, remain obliterated and forgotten, as if no such things had ever happened....

III. We ordain that the Catholic Apostolic and Roman religion shall be restored and reëstablished in all places and localities of this our kingdom and countries subject to our sway, where the exercise of the same has been interrupted, in order that it may be peaceably and freely exercised, without any trouble or hindrance; forbidding very expressly all persons, of whatsoever estate, quality, or condition, from troubling, molesting, or disturbing ecclesiastics in the celebration of divine service, in the enjoyment or collection of tithes, fruits, or revenues of their benefices, and all other rights and dues belonging to them; and that all those who during the troubles have taken possession of churches, houses, goods or revenues, belonging to the said ecclesiastics, shall surrender to them entire possession and peaceable enjoyment of such rights, liberties, and sureties as they had before they were deprived of them....

VI. And in order to leave no occasion for troubles or differences between our subjects, we have permitted, and herewith permit, those of the said religion called Reformed to live and abide in all the cities and places of this our kingdom and countries of our sway, without being annoyed, molested, or compelled to do anything in the matter of religion contrary to their consciences, ... upon condition that they comport themselves in other respects according to that which is contained in this our present edict.

VII. It is permitted to all lords, gentlemen, and other persons making profession of the said religion called Reformed, holding the right of high justice [or a certain feudal tenure], to exercise the said religion in their houses....

IX. We also permit those of the said religion to make and continue the exercise of the same in all villages and places of our dominion where it was established by them and publicly enjoyed several and divers times in the year 1597, up to the end of the month of August, notwithstanding all decrees and judgments to the contrary....

XIII. We very expressly forbid to all those of the said religion its exercise, either in respect to ministry, regulation, discipline, or the public instruction of children, or otherwise, in this our kingdom and lands of our dominion, otherwise than in the places permitted and granted by the present edict.

XIV. It is forbidden as well to perform any function of the said religion in our court or retinue, or in our lands and territories beyond the mountains, or in our city of Paris, or within five leagues of the said city....

XVIII. We also forbid all our subjects, of whatever quality and condition, from carrying off by force or persuasion, against the will of their parents, the children of the said religion, in order to cause them to be baptized or confirmed in the Catholic Apostolic and Roman Church; and the same is forbidden to those of the said religion called Reformed, upon penalty of being punished with especial severity....

XXI. Books concerning the said religion called Reformed may not be printed and publicly sold, except in cities and places where the public exercise of the said religion is permitted.

XXII. We ordain that there shall be no difference or distinction made in respect to the said religion, in receiving pupils to be instructed in universities, colleges, and schools; nor in receiving the sick and poor into hospitals, retreats, and public charities.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In 1898, the tricentennial celebrated the edict as the foundation of the coming Age of Toleration; the 1998 anniversary, by contrast, was commemorated with a book of essays under the title, Coexister dans l'intolérance (Michel Grandjean and Bernard Roussel, editors, Geneva, 1998).
  2. ^ A detailed chronological account of the negotiations that led to the Edict's promulgation has been offered by Janine Garrisson, L'Édit de Nantes: Chronique d'une paix attendue (Paris: Fayard) 1998.
  3. ^ For Eastern Europe, see Mehmed II's Firman on the Freedom of the Bosnian Franciscans or the Warsaw Confederation.
  4. ^ The king agreed to support the Protestant ministers in partial compensation.
  5. ^ The ordonnance of 22 February 1610 stipulated that the refugees had to settle north of the Dordogne, safely away from the manipulations of Spanish agents, and that they embrace the Catholic faith; those who did not wish to do so were granted right of passage to French ports on the Mediterranean to take ship for Barbary.[6] By the time the ordonnance was published, Henri IV had been assassinated.

References

Footnotes

  1. ^ Lualdi, Katharine J. (2004). "Persevering in the Faith: Catholic Worship and Communal Identity in the Wake of the Edict of Nantes". The Sixteenth Century Journal. 35 (3): 717–734. doi:10.2307/20477042. ISSN 0361-0160.
  2. ^ Geoffrey Treasure, The Huguenots (Yale UP, 2015) pp 226–229.
  3. ^ Charles Tylor. The Huguenots in the Seventeenth Century (1892) pp 9–10.
  4. ^ a b George A. Rothrock Jr., "Some Aspects of Early Bourbon Policy toward the Huguenots" Church History 29.1 (March 1960:17–24) p. 17.
  5. ^ Texts published in Benoist 1693 I:62–98 (noted by Rothrock).
  6. ^ L. P. Harvey, Muslims in Spain, 1500 to 1614, 2005:318
  7. ^ Rothrock 1960:23 note 6.
  8. ^ Reported in Baedeker, Northern France, 1889.
  9. ^ A point made in Rothrock 1960:19.
  10. ^ Ruth Kleinman, "Changing Interpretations of the Edict of Nantes: The Administrative Aspect, 1643–1661" French Historical Studies 10.4 (Autumn 1978:541–71.
  11. ^ "Internet History Sourcebooks". www.fordham.edu.
  12. ^ Morison, Samuel Eliot (1972). The Oxford History of the American People. New York City: Mentor. pp. 220. ISBN 0-451-62600-1.
  13. ^ See History of the French in Louisville.
  14. ^ City ordinance of 1682-03-11
  15. ^ Encyclopedia of the Age of Political Ideals, Edict of Versailles (1787) Archived 2012-07-14 at the Wayback Machine, downloaded 29 January 2012
  16. ^ History Guide, The Edict of Nantes (1598) Archived 2018-09-24 at the Wayback Machine

Sources

The source followed by most modern historians is the Huguenot refugee Élie Benoist's Histoire de l'édit de Nantes, 3 vols. (Delft, 1693–95). E.G. Léonard devotes a chapter to the Edict of Nantes in his Histoire général du protestantisme, 2 vols. (Paris) 1961:II:312–89.

Further reading

  • Alcock, Antony. A history of the protection of regional cultural minorities in Europe: From the Edict of Nantes to the present day (Springer, 2000).[ISBN missing]
  • Baumgartner, Frederic J. "The Catholic Opposition to the Edict of Nantes, 1598–1599." Bibliothèque d'humanisme et Renaissance 40.3 (1978): 525–536. online
  • Cavendish, Richard. "The edict of Nantes." History Today 48.4 (1998): 35+.
  • Champeaud, Gregory. "The Edict of Poitiers and the Treaty of Nérac, or two steps towards the Edict of Nantes." Sixteenth Century Journal (2001): 319–334. online
  • Davis, Stephen M. The French Huguenots and Wars of Religion: Three Centuries of Resistance for Freedom of Conscience (2021)[ISBN missing]
  • Greengrass, Mark. "The Edict of Nantes (1598)." in Handbuch Frieden im Europa der Frühen Neuzeit (2021): 897–910. online in English[permanent dead link]
  • Kleinman, Ruth. "Changing Interpretations of the Edict of Nantes: The Administrative Aspect, 1643–1661." French Historical Studies 10.4 (1978): 541–571 online
  • Gerson, Noel B. The Edict of Nantes (Grosset & Dunlap, 1969)[ISBN missing]
  • Lualdi, Katharine J. "Persevering in the faith: Catholic worship and communal identity in the wake of the Edict of Nantes." Sixteenth century journal (2004): 717–734. online
  • Orcibal, Jean. "Louis XIV and the Edict of Nantes." in Louis XIV and Absolutism (Palgrave Macmillan, 1976) pp. 154–176.[ISBN missing]
  • Parsons, Jotham, ed. The Edict of Nantes: Five Essays and a New Translation (National Huguenot Society, 1998).
  • Pugh, Wilma J. "Social welfare and the Edict of Nantes: Lyon and Nimes." French Historical Studies 8.3 (1974): 349–376. online
  • Sutherland, Nicola M. "The Crown, the Huguenots, and the Edict of Nantes." in The Huguenot Connection: The Edict of Nantes, Its Revocation, and Early French Migration to South Carolina (Springer, Dordrecht, 1988) pp. 28–48.[ISBN missing]
  • Sutherland, Nicola Mary. "The Huguenots and the Edict of Nantes 1598–1629." in Huguenots in Britain and their French Background, 1550–1800 (Palgrave Macmillan, 1987) pp. 158–174.[ISBN missing]
  • Treasure, Geoffrey. The Huguenots (Yale UP, 2015)[ISBN missing]
  • Tylor, Charles. The Huguenots in the Seventeenth Century: Including the History of the Edict of Nantes, from Its Enactment in 1598 to Its Revocation in 1685 (1892)
  • Whelan, Ruth. Toleration and Religious Identity: The Edict of Nantes and its Implications in France, Britain and Ireland (2003)[ISBN missing]

External links

Media related to Edict of Nantes at Wikimedia Commons

Baca informasi lainnya:

Эту статью предлагается удалить.Пояснение причин и соответствующее обсуждение вы можете найти на странице Википедия:К удалению/25 ноября 2022.Пока процесс обсуждения не завершён, статью можно попытаться улучшить, однако следует воздерживаться от переименований или немоти

Statue of the Emperor Tiberius showing a draped toga of the 1st century AD Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised a short-sleeved or sleeveless, knee-length tunic for men and boys, and a longer, usually sleeved tunic for women and girls. On formal occasions, adult male citizens could wear a woolen toga, draped over their tunic, and married citizen women wore a woolen mantle, known as a palla, over a stola, a simple, long-sleeved, voluminous garment that modestly hung to cover the feet. Clo…

Rzeka wspomnieńA River Runs Through It Gatunek biograficzny Data premiery 13 września 1992 Kraj produkcji Stany Zjednoczone Język angielski Czas trwania 123 min Reżyseria Robert Redford Scenariusz Richard Friedenberg Główne role Craig ShefferBrad PittTom Skerritt Muzyka Mark Isham Zdjęcia Philippe Rousselot Scenografia Jon Hutman Kostiumy Kathy O'RearBernie PollackReese Spensley Montaż Robert EstrinLynzee Klingman Produkcja Patrick MarkeyAmalia MatoRobert Redford Wytwórnia Allied Filmma…

Dieser Artikel oder nachfolgende Abschnitt ist nicht hinreichend mit Belegen (beispielsweise Einzelnachweisen) ausgestattet. Angaben ohne ausreichenden Beleg könnten demnächst entfernt werden. Bitte hilf Wikipedia, indem du die Angaben recherchierst und gute Belege einfügst. Schmelzer in einer Nickelhütte Aluminiumskulptur: „Zwei Schmelzer“, Welper Ein Schmelzer ist ein Handwerker, der aus flüssigen Stoffen Werkzeuge, Waffen oder Waren aus Glas herstellt. Es gab spezialisierte Schmelzer…

  لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع آيا صوفيا (توضيح). تحتوي هذه المقالة على استشهادات بالمصادر بحاجة إلى تجميع. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال تجميع المصادر لتصبح بالصورة المُثلى. جامع آيا صوفيا (بالتركية: Ayasofya Camii)‏ واجهة آيا صوفيا سنة 2013 إحداثيات 41°00′30″N 28°58′48″E / 41…

小大君(大和文華館) 伊勢(個人蔵) 佐竹本三十六歌仙絵巻(さたけぼんさんじゅうろっかせんえまき)は、三十六歌仙を描いた絵巻物で、鎌倉時代(13世紀)に制作された。久保田藩(秋田藩)主・佐竹家に伝来した、三十六歌仙絵の草分け的存在[1]にして、代表的な作品である。書は後京極良経、画は藤原信実によると伝わる[1]。 元は上下2巻の巻物で、

جلال بن عبد الله معلومات شخصية الميلاد 26 مايو 1921  تونس العاصمة  تاريخ الوفاة 9 نوفمبر 2017 (96 سنة)   مواطنة الحماية الفرنسية في تونس (–20 مارس 1956) تونس (20 مارس 1956–)  الحياة العملية المهنة رسام  تعديل مصدري - تعديل   جلال بن عبد الله رسام تونسي.[1][2][3] ولد جلا…

This article is about the town. For the cookware, see Le Creuset. Commune in Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, FranceLe CreusotCommuneSteel factory Coat of armsLocation of Le Creusot Le CreusotShow map of FranceLe CreusotShow map of Bourgogne-Franche-ComtéCoordinates: 46°48′05″N 4°26′28″E / 46.8014°N 4.4411°E / 46.8014; 4.4411CountryFranceRegionBourgogne-Franche-ComtéDepartmentSaône-et-LoireArrondissementAutunCantonLe Creusot-1 and 2IntercommunalityCU Creusot Montc…

Monumento a papa Giovanni Paolo II Piastra alla base della statua Il monumento a papa Giovanni Paolo II è una statua in bronzo raffigurante papa Giovanni Paolo II, che si trova accanto alla porta principale della chiesa di Nostra Signora della Concezione nella città di San Cristóbal de La Laguna (Tenerife, isole Canarie, Spagna). Indice 1 Descrizione 2 Inaugurazione 3 Note 4 Voci correlate 5 Altri progetti Descrizione La statua è opera dell'artista polacco Czesław Dźwigaj.[1] Il mo…

سر مسحة المرضى، هو أحد الأسرار السبعة المقدسة في المسيحية وقد نصّ عليه العهد الجديد، ويمنح بوسم الجبين بزيت الزيتون مباركًا، أي مقروءًا عليه نصوص وصلوات. ومن الممكن أن يمنح للمرضى أو المنازعين أو قبيل العمل الجراحي، ويظهر تضامن الكنيسة الجامعة مع المريض، ويجلب بركة الله له…

Origins, structure, use and study of the rock formations of Spain, Portugal, Andorra and Gibraltar Major components of the geology of the Iberian Peninsula Geological map of the Iberian Peninsula The geology of the Iberian Peninsula consists of the study of the rock formations on the Iberian Peninsula, which includes Spain, Portugal, Andorra, and Gibraltar. The peninsula contains rocks from every geological period from the Ediacaran to the Quaternary, and many types of rock are represented. Worl…

Proof That the Youth Are RevoltingLive album by Five Iron FrenzyReleasedNovember 1999RecordedVarious concerts from 1998 to 1999.GenreChristian skaLength71:38LabelFive Minute Walk/Warner Bros. RecordsProducerFrank TateFive Iron Frenzy chronology Quantity Is Job 1(1998) Proof That the Youth Are Revolting(1999) All the Hype That Money Can Buy(2000) Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllmusic linkbandoppler.comlinkDecapolislinkHM Magazinelink[1]Jesus Freak HideoutlinkThe Phanto…

Nepal Pemakaian 111000 Perbandingan 5:4 Dipakai 16 Desember 1962 Bendera Nepal adalah satu-satunya bendera negara di dunia yang tidak berbentuk segi empat (kuadrilateral). Bendera ini merupakan kombinasi dari dua bendera Hindu dari dua cabang yang berbeda dari penguasa Nepal sebelumnya, dinasti Rana. Warna merah merupakan warna rhododendron, bunga nasional Nepal. Warna biru melambangkan perdamaian. Bendera ini diadopsi pada tanggal 16 Desember 1962. Bendera historis Bendera Nepal abad ke 19 Bend…

Estonian journalist Kannel in 2011 Astrid Kannel (born 7 June 1967 in Haapsalu) is an Estonian television journalist.[1][2][3][4] References ^ Naisteleht. Naisteleht. ^ Astrid Kannel sai Ene Hioni Fondi preemia. ERR (in Estonian). 15 May 2014. ^ Best Side: Astrid Kannel. May 14, 2005. Archived from the original on December 12, 2008. Retrieved August 25, 2018. ^ Astrid Kannel pälvis Teenäitaja aunimetuse. ERR (in Estonian). 16 February 2015. This Estonian biograp…

1995 single by Kool G RapIt's a ShameSingle by Kool G Rapfrom the album 4,5,6 ReleasedAugust 15, 1995StudioBearsville Studios (Bearsville, New York)GenreEast coast hip hophardcore hip hopMafioso rapGangsta rapLength4:04LabelCold Chillin', Epic Street, SMESongwriter(s)Joe Davis, Milton Johnson, James Van Leer, Nathaniel WilsonProducer(s)Naughty ShortsKool G Rap singles chronology On the Run (1992) It's a Shame (1995) Fast Life (1995) Music videoIt's a Shame on YouTube It's a Shame is the debut so…

Moroccan football club This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Wafa Wydad – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Football clubWafa WydadFull nameWafa WydadFounded1944GroundStade Tessema,Casablanca, MoroccoCapacity10,000ChairmanSalaheddine Echengu…

American judge (born 1964) Gregory G. KatsasOfficial portrait, 2008Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia CircuitIncumbentAssumed office December 8, 2017Appointed byDonald TrumpPreceded byJanice Rogers BrownDeputy White House CounselIn officeJanuary 20, 2017 – December 8, 2017PresidentDonald TrumpLeaderDon McGahnUnited States Assistant Attorney General for the Civil DivisionIn officeJuly 2008 – January 20, 2009PresidentGeorge W. BushPre…

Metro station in Chennai, India RoyapettahChennai Metro stationGeneral informationLocationWestcott Road, Royapettah, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 600014IndiaOwned byChennai MetroOperated byChennai Metro Rail LimitedTracks2ConstructionStructure typeUnderground, Double trackParkingNoAccessibleYes HistoryOpenedUnder constructionElectrifiedSingle phase 25 kV, 50 Hz AC through overhead catenary Royapettah metro station is a metro railway station on the Purple Line of the Chennai Metro. The station is among th…

Steve ForrestSteve Forrest dalam foto publisitas untuk S.W.A.T. (1975)LahirWilliam Forrest Andrews(1925-09-29)29 September 1925Huntsville, Texas, Amerika SerikatMeninggal18 Mei 2013(2013-05-18) (umur 87)Thousand Oaks, California, Amerika SerikatAlmamaterUCLAPekerjaanPemeranTahun aktif1943–2003Suami/istriChristine Carilas(m.1948–2013; kematiannya)Anak3 Steve Forrest (nama lahir William Forrest Andrews; 29 September 1925 – 18 Mei 2013) adalah seorang pemeran Amerika S…

English paraphrase of the Bible The MessageFull nameThe Message: The Bible in Contemporary LanguageAbbreviationMSGNT published1993Complete Biblepublished2002Translation typeParaphraseRevision2018PublisherNavPressCopyrightTHE MESSAGE: The Bible in Contemporary Language copyright © 1993, 2002, 2018 by Eugene H. Peterson. All rights reserved.Religious affiliationPresbyterian[1]Websitemessagebible.comGenesis 1:1–3 First this: God created the Heavens and Earth—all you see, all you d…

British hatchback from Mini, marque of BMW For the 1959–2000 Mini models, see Mini. Motor vehicle Mini Hatch2014 Mini Cooper 3-door hatchback (United States)OverviewManufacturerBMWAlso calledMini OneMini CooperProduction2000–presentModel years2001–presentBody and chassisClassSupermini (B)Sport compact / hot hatch (Cooper S & JCW)LayoutFront-engine, front-wheel-driveChronologyPredecessorMini The Mini Hatch, stylised as MINI Hatch (or MINI Hardtop in the U.S.), also sold as Min…

United States historic placeHelmer and Selma Steen HouseU.S. National Register of Historic Places Steen HouseShow map of Washington (state)Show map of the United StatesLocation10924 SW Cove Rd., Vashon, WashingtonCoordinates47°27′24″N 122°28′31″W / 47.456749°N 122.475311°W / 47.456749; -122.475311Area12.5 acres (5.1 ha)Built1911 (1911)Built bySteen, HelmerArchitectural styleBungalow/craftsmanNRHP reference No.00000976[1]Added t…

Дидилия Мифология славянская Пол женский В иных культурах Венера, Афродита, Туран Дидилия (лат. Dzydzilelya) — согласно «Истории Польши» Я. Длугоша (третья четверть XV века) богиня польского пантеона, якобы соответствующая римской Венере. А. Брюкнер указал, что многое в…

Norwegian politician Rød Herregård Carsten Tank (24 April 1766 – 28 January 1832) was a Norwegian businessman and politician who served as Norwegian councilor of government of the 1st Ministry (finance and taxes, March–November 1814), and later councilor of state of the same ministry.[1] Biography Carsten Tank was born at Rød Herregård, the family estate at Halden in Østfold County, Norway. Carsten Tank belonged to a branch of a wealthy timber merchant family. Carsten Tank's gra…

Royal Air Force school in Wiltshire The School of Land/Air Warfare was a Royal Air Force school based at Old Sarum in Wiltshire. Its purpose was to encourage greater co-operation between officers in the air and those on the ground. History The School was originally established at Old Sarum in 1920 as the School of Army Co-operation to provide training for air officers supporting troops on the ground.[1] This became the School of Air Support in 1945 when its remit was broadened to cover a…

Map all coordinates using: OpenStreetMap Download coordinates as: KML GPX (all coordinates) GPX (primary coordinates) GPX (secondary coordinates) This list includes properties and districts listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Iredell County, North Carolina. Click the Map of all coordinates link to the right to view an online map of all properties and districts with latitude and longitude coordinates in the table below.[1] Current listings         &…

Este artículo o sección necesita referencias que aparezcan en una publicación acreditada.Este aviso fue puesto el 6 de marzo de 2009. Los restaurantes cosplay (コスプレ系飲食店, Kosupure-kei Inshokuten?) son establecimientos de comida donde el personal atiende a los clientes vistiendo un cosplay. Los primeros locales surgieron en Akihabara, Tokio, Japón, a raíz de la pujante subcultura otaku de la zona.[Nota 1]​ Otras variantes de estos locales incluyen cafeterías, bares y pa…

Questlove Nazionalità Stati Uniti GenereHip hopJazz Periodo di attività musicale1987 – in attività Strumentobatteria Gruppi attualiThe Roots Album pubblicati3 Studio2 Raccolte0 Sito ufficiale Modifica dati su Wikidata · Manuale Oscar al miglior documentario 2022Questlove o ?uestlove, pseudonimo di Ahmir Khalib Thompson (Filadelfia, 20 gennaio 1971), è un batterista, disc-jockey, produttore discografico e giornalista musicale statunitense. È il batterista del …

French sculptor Graziella Curreli with model for Kenau-Ripperda monument from 2009 and Kenau model for Kenau Hasselaer Prijs from 2008 Kenau-Ripperda monument, view towards the Haarlem Railway Station Graziella Curreli (born 1960), is a French sculptor working in Haarlem, the Netherlands. She specializes in bronze figures and is known for her sculptures of strong women, most notably Kenau Simonsdochter Hasselaer. She attended the Sorbonne.[1] She has created works for the city of Haarlem…

Opera by Lorenzo Ferrero Not to be confused with Risorgimento. Risorgimento!Opera by Lorenzo FerreroThe final sceneLibrettistDario OliveriLanguageItalianPremiere26 March 2011 (2011-03-26)Teatro Comunale Modena Risorgimento! is an opera in one act by Lorenzo Ferrero set to an Italian-language libretto by Dario Oliveri, based on a scenario by the composer. It was completed in 2010 and first performed at the Teatro Comunale Modena on 26 March 2011. Overview The opera was commissioned…

Kembali kehalaman sebelumnya