Anti-Greek sentiment

Anti-Greek sentiment, also known as Hellenophobia[1][2] (Greek: ελληνοφοβία, romanizedellinophobía),[3] anti-Hellenism[4][5] (Greek: ανθελληνισμός, romanizedanthellinismós), mishellenism[6][7] (Greek: μισελληνισμός, romanizedmisellinismós), or Greek-bashing,[8] refers to negative feelings, dislike, hatred, derision, racism, prejudice, or discrimination towards Greeks, the Hellenic Republic, or Greek culture. It is the opposite of philhellenism.

Historic

Ancient Rome

In the mid–Republican period Rome phil-Hellenic and anti-Hellenic Roman intellectuals were involved in a conflict over Greek influence. One author explains, "the relationship of Romans to Greek culture was frequently ambiguous: they admired it as superior and adopted its criteria, while they remained skeptical of some aspects; hence they adapted it selectively according to their own purposes."[9] An anti-Hellenic movement emerged in reaction to the primacy of Greek led by the conservative and reactionary statesman Cato the Elder (234–149 BCE), who was the first to write a Roman history in Latin, and was prominent for his anti-Hellenic views.[10][11] He saw Hellenism as a threat to Roman culture, but did not find wide support, especially in the upper class.[12] However, Erich S. Gruen argued that Cato's "anti-Greek 'pronouncements' reflect deliberate posturing and do not represent 'the core of Catonian thought'."[13] The prominent philosopher and politician Cicero (106–43 BCE) was "highly ambivalent" about Greeks,[14] and practiced "anti-Greek slur".[15] The first-second century poet Juvenal was another major anti-Hellenic figure.[16][17]

Latin West

Following the East–West Schism of 1054, anti-Greek sentiment became widespread in the Latin West (dominated by the Catholic Church). It reached its climax during the Fourth Crusade and the 1204 sack of Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, and the establishment of the Latin Empire.[18]

East Sicily and Malta

In East Sicily and Malta, Christian Greeks were persecuted by Arabs during the period of the Emirate of Sicily. And later Latin speaking Catholics persecuted the Orthodox Greeks in Eastern Sicily and Arabic speaking Catholics persecuted the Orthodox Greeks in Malta.

Modern

Albania

In the interwar period (1918–39), the Albanian government closed down Greek schools as part of its policies of assimilation.[19]

During the Communist rule in Albania (1944–92), the government restricted the use of Greek language and Greek names by the country's Greek minority in an attempt of forced assimilation.[20] Anti-Greek sentiment dominated the thinking of Enver Hoxha, the communist leader of Albania, during the Greek Civil War.[21] These practices continued, at the very least, until Hoxha's death in 1985.

In post-Communist Albania, "there are no significant explicitly racist or chauvinist political parties", although, according to James Pettifer, "there are many individual politicians who adhere to very strong anti-Greek views, which in turn affects the orientation of virtually all ethnic Albanian political parties."[22] In a 2013 poll in Albania, Greece topped the list of countries perceived to be a threat to Albania (18.5%), although the plurality of respondents (46.4%) agreed with the statement "No country is a threat to Albania".[23]

Australia

Greeks in Australia have been subject to discrimination. During World War I, due to King Constantine I's pro-German sympathies, Greek immigrants were viewed with hostility and suspicion. Anti-Greek riots occurred in Perth in 1915 and in Kalgoorlie in 1916.[24][25]

The word "wog" is an ethnic slur used in Australia to refer to Southern European and Middle Eastern people of the Mediterranean region, including Greeks. It is also sometimes used against South Asians.[26] The term has also been adopted and used by Greek Australians to refer to themselves, including through the sitcom Acropolis Now (1989–92), the television spin-off of the 1987 play Wogs Out of Work[27] and the 2000 film The Wog Boy.

Bulgaria

In 1906, during the Macedonian Struggle, anti-Greek rallies and violent attacks took place in a number of Bulgarian cities. In Plovdiv, Greek Orthodox churches and schools, Greek-owned properties were looted and plundered. In Pomorie (Anchialos) the Greek population was expelled after the city was set up on fire and up to 110 Greeks were killed. Pogroms also took place in Varna, Burgas and other locations.[28] Following the pogroms, around 20,000 Greeks fled Bulgaria.[29]

Canada

On August 2–5, 1918, a three-day anti-Greek riot occurred in Toronto. "Mobs of up to 5,000 people, led by war veterans returned from Europe, marched through the city's main streets waging pitched battles with law enforcement officers and destroying every Greek business they came across." The consequence was damages of $100,000 to Greek businesses and private property.[30]

Italy

When the Italian Fascists gained power in 1922, they persecuted the Greek-speakers in Italy.[31]

North Macedonia

The Macedonia naming dispute since the breakup of Yugoslavia has given rise to anti-Greek sentiment in the Republic of North Macedonia.[32] According to journalist John Phillips, there was "considerable popular anti-Greek feeling in Macedonia" in 2004.[33] On the contrary, German diplomat Geert-Hinrich Ahrens (ger) wrote in 2007 that he "had never detected any anti-Greek manifestations" in the republic.[34]

The main opposition party of the Republic of North Macedonia, Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization – Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNE), founded in 1990, includes the name of Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization, a revolutionary movement active in the early 20th century, which is regarded by Greeks "a notorious anti-Greek terrorist organization."[35] During the party's First Congress, Ljubčo Georgievski, first leader of the party, declared that "the next Congress will convene in Solun" (Thessaloniki in South Slavic languages).[36] According to Dimitar Bechev, a British-based international relations researcher, then Prime Minister of North Macedonia Nikola Gruevski (the leader of VMRO-DPMNE) exploited "anti-Greek nationalism" during the 2008 parliamentary election.[37] In 2012 Gruevski accused Greece of having waged "political genocide" against his country. Greek Foreign Ministry spokesman Gregory Delavekouras responded that Gruevski's statements "stoke the systematic negative government propaganda that is aimed at turning public opinion in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia against Greece."[38]

Romania

At its inception Romanian national historiography was heavily influenced by romanticism. This led to a reconsideration of the role played by the Phanariotes who ruled modern day Romania as emissaries of the Ottoman Empire. Romanian national poet Mihai Eminescu described Greeks as "the poison of the Orient, hypocritical people who crave to exploit others". The hellenophobic tendency in Romanian historiography was reversed through the work of historian Nicolae Iorga.[39]

During the course of the Macedonian Struggle, Romania founded the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society which conducted ethnographic expeditions to Macedonia, Epirus and Thessaly. The Society later took up the role of representing Romania interests in the region. The propagation of Romanian nationalist ideals among the Aromanian communities, created a rift between the two countries known as the Aromanian question. Another important issue was the status of the inheritances of Greeks in Romania. In 1892, Romania refused to hand over the property of the recently deceased Greek expatriate Konstantinos Zappas to the Greek state citing an article of the Romanian constitution forbidding foreign nationals from owning agricultural land. The Trikoupis government then recalled its ambassador in Bucharest, Romania followed suit thus severing diplomatic relations between the countries. Diplomatic relations were restored in July 1896, in response to a rise of Bulgarian komitadji activity in Macedonia. In 1905, the two countries exchanged accusations regarding the Aromanian question. Romania claimed that Greek armed bands targeted ethnic Romanians in Macedonia, whereas Greece accused Romania of trying to create a false equation between Aromanians and Romanians.[39]

Hellenophobic articles began appearing in the Romanian press. On 2 August 1905, the Macedo-Romanian Cultural Society organized an anti-Greek protest in Bucharest, attended by army officers, students and ethnic Aromanians. After decrying Greek war crimes in Macedonia, the organizers called for a boycott of Greek products and services. Rioting was prevented by a large force of Romanian gendarmerie. On the same day a Greek owned cafe in Bucharest was vandalized and its owner beaten. Several days later three editors of the Greek-language newspaper Patris were expelled from the country for sedition. On 13 August, protesters burnt a Greek flag in Giurgiu. An official remonstrance by the Greek ambassador Tombazis was rebutted leading to a mutual withdrawal of embassies on 15 September. In November, the Romanian government allocated funding for the creation of armed Aromanian bands in Macedonia, a parallel motion closed numerous Greek schools in the country. In February 1906, six leading members of the Greek community were expelled from the country, citing their alleged funding of Greek bands in Macedonia. In July 1906, the Greek government officially severed diplomatic relations with Romania. In 1911, Greek prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos used the occasion of the Italo-Turkish War to improve relations with Bulgaria and Romania, restoring diplomatic relations with the latter.[39]

Soviet Union

Between 1919 and 1924 around 47,000 Greeks emigrated from Russia to Greece as a result of the official and unofficial anti-Greek sentiment in Russia, which in its turn was a result of the Greek intervention in the Black Sea region in the Russian Civil War against the Bolsheviks.[40]

Tens of thousands of Greeks were deported to the remote parts of the Soviet Union during World War II in the Greek Operation of NKVD.

Turkey

The Lincoln Daily Star, October 19, 1917

Anti-Greek sentiment is "deeply rooted" in the Turkish public.[41] A 2011 survey in Turkey revealed that 67% of respondents had unfavorable views toward Greeks, though only 6% said they saw Greece as their main enemy in a poll carried out that same year.[42] Despite this, according to political scientist Emre Erdogan, Greece remains one of the "eternal enemies of Turkey", along with Armenia.[43] Journalist Dr. Cenk Saraçoğlu of Ankara University argues that anti-Greek attitudes in Turkey "are no longer constructed and shaped by social interactions between the 'ordinary people' [...] Rather, the Turkish media and state promote and disseminate an overtly anti-Greek discourse."[44] On the other hand, Turkish political scientist Bahar Rumelili wrote in 2007:[45]

Both the Turkish government and the Turkish military have made public statements that Turkey no longer sees Greece as its rival. While a small minority in Turkish society maintains its anti-Greek sentiments and actions, there is a growing liking for Greek society and culture and an increasing awareness of the Greek heritage in Turkey.

In 1821 Greeks of Constantinople were massacred in response to the Greek War of Independence, while Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople was hanged.

During and following World War I, almost all of the Greek population of Anatolia was either exterminated by the Ottoman government or later transferred to Greece as part of a population exchange based on religious affiliation.

In September 1955 the Turkish government sponsored anti-Greek riots and pogrom in Constantinople.[46][47] The dispute over Cyprus kept anti-Greek feelings in Turkey high. At the height of the intercommunal violence in Cyprus, thousands of Greeks were expelled from Turkey in 1964–1965, mostly Constantinople. In March 1964, all persons (over 6,000) with Greek citizenship were expelled "on the grounds that they were dangerous to the 'internal and external' security of the state." Additionally, in September 1964, 10,000 Greeks were expelled. Cumhuriyet reported that 30,000 "Turkish nationals of Greek descent had left permanently, in addition to the Greeks who had been expelled."[48] Within months a total of 40,000 Greeks were expelled from Constantinople.[49]

In 1999 Turkey "was again swept by a wave of anti-Greek sentiment, encouraged by the Turkish government"[50] following the capture of the Kurdistan Workers' Party leader Abdullah Öcalan in Nairobi, Kenya who was initially hiding in the Greek embassy.[51] However, as a result of the "earthquake diplomacy" and the subsequent rapprochement efforts between Greece and Turkey, the public perception of Greece as their main enemy decreased in Turkey from 29% in 2001 to 16.9% in 2004.[52]

The Grey Wolves, a far-right organization associated with the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), routinely demonstrate outside the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in the Phanar district and burn the Patriarch in effigy.[53] In October 2005 they staged a rally and proceeding to the gate they laid a black wreath, chanting "Patriarch Leave" and "Patriarchate to Greece", inaugurating the campaign for the collection of signatures to oust the Ecumenical Patriarchate from Constantinople.[54] As of 2006 the Grey Wolves claimed to have collected more than 5 million signatures for the withdrawal of the Patriarch[55] and called on the Turkish government to have the patriarch deported to Greece.[56]

United States

In the early 20th century Greeks in the United States were discriminated against in many ways. In 1904 Greek immigrants, unaware of labor conditions and largely inexperienced, served as strikebreakers during a strike in Chicago diesel shops. This fueled anti-Greek sentiment among union members. Three Greek immigrants were killed during a riot in 1908 in McGill, Nevada.[57] On February 21, 1909, a major anti-Greek riot took place in South Omaha, Nebraska. The Greek population was forced to leave the city, while properties owned by Greek migrants were destroyed.[58] Greeks were viewed with particular contempt in the Mormon stronghold of Utah. The local press characterized them as "a vicious element unfit for citizenship" and as "ignorant, depraved, and brutal foreigners." Anti-Greek riots occurred in Salt Lake City in 1917 which "almost resulted" in lynching of a Greek immigrant.[57] In 1922, as a response to the anti-Greek nativist xenophobia by the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), the American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA) was founded, which sought to Americanize the Greek immigrant in America.[59]

In Montgomery County, Maryland, a suburban county bordering Washington, D.C., some property deeds for houses include discriminatory covenants that excluded Greek-Americans prior to the passage of the Fair Housing Act of 1968.[60]

In December 2014, MTV aired the first episode of its new reality show Growing Up Greek. It was immediately denounced by Greek Americans and characterized as "stereotype-laden"[61] and "offensive".[62] The American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA) called for it to be canceled.[63]

In recent years, anti-Greek sentiment has emerged within neopagan communities through efforts to redefine Hellenism as a modern pagan religion. This usage of either "Hellenismos" or "Hellenism" as a religion and religious identity is considered objectionable and harmful towards Greek identity.[64] In an interview in Tablet magazine, American independent scholar Angelo Nasios explained that: "Hellenism refers simply to Greekness. Recontextualizing it within a religious framework ... can cause confusion for outsiders, and untethers the tradition from its ethnic and historical origins."[65] Nasios is also quoted saying elsewhere that: "Hellenism is not a religious label for Greeks (Hellenes). Rather, it is a word that expresses a multitude of elements that constitute our identity. Hellenism or Hellenismos refers to our entire ethnos and the diaspora."[66]

Western Europe

As a result of the Greek government-debt crisis, starting in 2010, anti-Greek sentiments grew in some European countries, especially in Germany.[67][68][69] A 2014 study found, "An anti-Greek sentiment evolved and spread among German citizens and solidarity for crisis-hit Greece was mostly rejected."[70] In 2012 Pew Research Center found, "Among the major European countries, Greece is clearly the least popular. And its reputation is slipping. In no country, other than Greece itself, is there a majority with a favorable view of Greece." Only 27% of respondents in Germany viewed Greece favorably.[71]

Hostile and unfavorable views towards Greece and Greeks were especially pronounced in the tabloid press. A 2013 study found that Western European news sources "indicate bias against Greece in financial crisis coverage" and "include stereotypes, the recommendation of austerity as a punishment, morality tales, an absence of solidarity, and fear mongering."[72] The popular German tabloid Bild "published numerous reports that implicitly and explicitly constituted the myth of the corrupt and lazy Greeks in comparison to the hard-working Germans."[70] Dutch TV producer Ingeborg Beugel (nl) claimed that "the [anti-Greek] propaganda of the mainstream media provides Europe and the Netherlands with a convenient scapegoat to exploit."[73]

German politicians, such as the former Minister for Foreign Affairs Guido Westerwelle and former Chancellor Gerhard Schröder, publicly criticized the anti-Greek sentiment in their country and called for solidarity with Greece.[74][75][76]

Derogatory terms

  • Grecoman – An insult frequently used in Albania, North Macedonia, Bulgaria, and Romania, meaning "pretending to be a Greek".
  • Wog – A derogatory racial term primarily used in Australia and New Zealand against Greeks, but also against other Mediterrenean people.
  • Greaseball – A racist term used in the United States, targetting Greek and other Mediterrenean people.

See also

References

  1. ^ Colman, Andrew M. (2009). A Dictionary of Psychology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 842. ISBN 9780199534067.
  2. ^ Bourdon, Georges [in French] (1920). Hellas and Unredeemed Hellenism: The Policy of Victory in the East and Its Results. New York: American-Hellenic Society. p. 22. Since in Asia Minor, as well as at Constantinople, Turkophilism carries with it as corollaries Hellenophobia and Armenophobia...
  3. ^ Mitropoulou, Eirini (12 December 2014). "Βαρτάν Βοσκανιάν: Αρμενοφοβία και ελληνοφοβία ζουν ακόμη στην Τουρκία". To Vima (in Greek).
  4. ^ Herzfeld, Michael (2002). "The European Self". In Pagden, Anthony (ed.). The Idea of Europe: From Antiquity to the European Union. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 162. ISBN 978-0521795524. the much-maligned Turkish strain in Greek culture becomes a means of asserting difference, but always at the price of ridicule (not to speak of charges of anti-Hellenism!).
  5. ^ Ferentinou, Ariana (3 July 2011). "Shifting perceptions of Greece in EU". Hürriyet Daily News.
  6. ^ Tzanelli, Rodanthi (2008). Nation-building and identity in Europe: the dialogics of reciprocity. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 60. ISBN 9780230551992. ...mishellenism or hatred toward the Greeks...
  7. ^ Valaoritis, Nanos (2012-03-22). "Greece in a Time of Crisis". bookbar.gr. Retrieved 13 October 2014. Mishellenism and anti-Semitism are connected phenomena...
  8. ^ Gyarfasova, Olga; Liebhart, Karin, eds. (2014). Constructing and Communicating EUrope. Lit Verlag. p. 20. ISBN 978-3643905154. In reaction to the Greek-basing and doubts about Greek future in the Eurozone...
  9. ^ Manuwald, Gesine (2011). Roman Republican Theatre. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780521110167.
  10. ^ Rochette, Buno (2010). "Greek and Latin Bilingualism". In Bakker, Egbert J. (ed.). A Companion to the Ancient Greek Language. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. p. 284. ISBN 9781444317404.
  11. ^ Adams, Geoff W. (2007). The Roman Emperor Gaius "Caligula" and His Hellenistic Aspirations. Boca Raton: BrownWalker Press. p. 30. ISBN 9781599424231.
  12. ^ Bunson, Matthew (2009). "Hellenism". Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. Infobase Publishing. p. 253. ISBN 9781438110271.
  13. ^ Henrichs, Albert (1995). "Graecia Capta: Roman Views of Greek Culture". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 97: 243–261. doi:10.2307/311309. JSTOR 311309.
  14. ^ Isaac, Benjamin (2013). The Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 389. ISBN 9780691125985.
  15. ^ Schott, Jeremy M. (2008). Christianity, Empire, and the Making of Religion in Late Antiquity. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-8122-0346-2.
  16. ^ Braund, Susanna; Osgood, Josiah, eds. (2012). A Companion to Persius and Juvenal. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley Blackwell. p. 274. ISBN 978-1405199650.
  17. ^ Green, Peter (1993). Alexander to Actium: The Hellenistic Age. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 318. ISBN 9780500277287.
  18. ^ Rowe, John Gordon (1959). "The Papacy and the Greeks (1122–1153)". Church History: Studies in Christianity and Culture. 28 (2): 120.
  19. ^ "Albania > Greeks". Minority Rights Group International. Archived from the original on November 15, 2014. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
  20. ^ Levinson, David (1998). Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 8. ISBN 9781573560191.
  21. ^ Xhudo, Gus (1995). "Tension among neighbors: Greek-Albanian relations and their impact on regional security and stability". Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. 18 (2): 111–143. doi:10.1080/10576109508435972.
  22. ^ Pettifer, James (2000). "The Greek Minority in Albania: Ethnic Politics in Pre-National State". In Stein, Jonathan P. (ed.). The Politics of National Minority Participation in Post-Communist Europe (PDF). M. E. Sharpe. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-7656-0528-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-11-12.
  23. ^ Cela, Alba; Lleshaj, Sashenka (March 2014). "Albanian-Greek elations from the eyes of the Albanian public perceptions 2013" (PDF). Friedrich Ebert Foundation. Tirana: Albanian Institute for International Studies. p. 31. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 15, 2014.
  24. ^ Vassilopoulos, James (24 March 1999). "Greek Australians: beyond the stereotypes". Green Left Weekly.
  25. ^ Yiannakis, John N. (1996). "Kalgoorlie alchemy: xenophobia, patriotism and the 1916 anti-Greek riots". Early Days. 11 (2): 199–211.
  26. ^ "Aren't you sick of being called a WOG?". Greek Reporter. 4 February 2013.
  27. ^ Wagg, Stephen, ed. (2004). Because I Tell a Joke or Two: Comedy, Politics and Social Difference. Routledge. p. 216. ISBN 9781134794324.
  28. ^ Kotzabassi Maria, "Persecution of Greek populations at the Bulgarian coast of the Black Sea, 1906", Encyclopaedia of the Hellenic World, Black Sea
  29. ^ Dragostinova, Theodora (2008). "Speaking National: Nationalizing the Greeks of Bulgaria, 1900-1939". Slavic Review. 67 (1): 154–181. doi:10.2307/27652772. JSTOR 27652772. S2CID 163501883.
  30. ^ Gallant, Thomas W.; Treheles, George; Vitopoulos, Michael. "The 1918 Anti-Greek Riot in Toronto" (PDF). York University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-11-29.
  31. ^ Minority Rights Group International - Italy - Greek-speakers
  32. ^ Karakatsanis, Leonidas (2014). Turkish-Greek Relations: Rapprochement, Civil Society and the Politics of Friendship. Routledge. p. 79. ISBN 9781317906230. After persisting unresolved for ten years the 'name issue' has also been reflected in the growth of a mirroring nationalist anti-Greek movement in the Republic of Macedonia.
  33. ^ Phillips, John (2004). Macedonia: Warlords and Rebels in the Balkans. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 182. ISBN 9780300102680.
  34. ^ Ahrens, Geert-Hinrich (2007). Diplomacy on the Edge: Containment of Ethnic Conflict and the Minorities Working Group of the Conferences on Yugoslavia. Woodrow Wilson Center Press. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-8018-8557-0.
  35. ^ Danforth, Loring M. (1997). The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780691043562.
  36. ^ Papavizas, George Constantine (2006). Claiming Macedonia: The Struggle for the Heritage, Territory and Name of the Historic Hellenic Land, 1862-2004. Mcfarland & Co Inc. p. 239. ISBN 978-0786423231.
  37. ^ Bechev, Dimitar (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Macedonia. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. Ixxiii. ISBN 9780810862951. ...Gruevski, riding the waves of anti-Greek nationalism.
  38. ^ Jakov Marusic, Sinisa (28 June 2012). "Greece: Macedonia Waging 'Anti-Greek' Propaganda War". Skopje: BIRN. Balkan Insight.
  39. ^ a b c Sfetas, Spyridon (2001). "Το ιστορικό πλαίσιο των ελληνο-ρουμανικών πολιτικών σχέσεων (1866-1913)" [The Historical Context of Greco-Romanian political relations (1866-1913)]. Makedonika (in Greek). 33 (1): 23–48. doi:10.12681/makedonika.278.
  40. ^ Olson, James S., ed. (1994). An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 273. ISBN 9780313274978.
  41. ^ Athanasopulos, Haralambos (2001). Greece, Turkey and the Aegean Sea: A Case Study in International Law. McFarland. p. 49. ISBN 9780786450039.
  42. ^ "Turkish citizens mistrust foreigners, opinion poll says". Hürriyet Daily News. 2 May 2011.
  43. ^ "Why Turks Feel Threatened by the US". Washington, DC: World Public Opinion. 5 September 2007. Archived from the original on 2014-10-20. Retrieved 2014-10-17.
  44. ^ Saraçoğlu, Cenk (2011). Kurds of Modern Turkey: Migration, Neoliberalism and Exclusion in Turkish Society. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 175. ISBN 9780857719102.
  45. ^ Rumelili, Bahar (2007). "Transforming Conflicts on EU Borders: the Case of Greek-Turkish Relations". Journal of Common Market Studies. 45 (1): 122. doi:10.1111/j.1468-5965.2007.00705.x. S2CID 155052759.
  46. ^ Stearns, Monteagle (1992). Entangled allies: US policy toward Greece, Turkey, and Cyprus. New York, NY: Council on Foreign Relations Pr. p. 94. ISBN 9780876091104. Nevertheless, violent and highly visible Turkish eruptions of anti-Greek sentiment, like the 1955 Istanbul riots...
  47. ^ Alexandris, Alexis (2003). "Religion or Ethnicity: The Identity Issue of the Minorities in Greece and Turkey". In Hirschon, Renee (ed.). Crossing the Aegean: An Appraisal of the 1923 Compulsory Population Exchange between Greece and Turkey. Berghahn Books. p. 119. ISBN 9780857457028. Anti-Greek sentiment came to a head during the government-sponsored riots of 5–6 September 1955
  48. ^ "Denying Human Rights and Ethnic Identity: The Greeks of Turkey" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 1992. pp. 10–11. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 12, 2014.
  49. ^ "Exhibition marks 1964 expulsion of İstanbul Greeks". Today's Zaman. 16 March 2014.
  50. ^ Blum, Gabriella (2007). Islands of Agreement: Managing Enduring Armed Rivalries. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 132. ISBN 9780674024465.
  51. ^ Morris, Chris (16 December 2004). "Athens and Ankara strengthen ties". BBC News. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014.
  52. ^ Koukoudakis, George (Summer 2013). "Greek-Turkish Rapprochement and Turkey's EU Membership Quest: Turning Rhetoric Into Reality" (PDF). Turkish Policy Quarterly. 12 (2): 157–168. ISSN 1303-5754. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-13.
  53. ^ "The Violations of the Human Rights of the Greek Minority in Turkey: Atrocities and persecutions 1923 - 2009" (PDF). cpolitan.gr. Athens: The Constantinopolitan Society. 2009. p. 31. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 11, 2014.
  54. ^ Alexopoulos, Dimitris (28 October 2005). "By the Grey Wolves Tension at the Patriarchate". Hellenic Radio.
  55. ^ Spyroglou, Valentine (April 2006). "A Populist Surge Splits Turkey From Its Traditional Allies". Defense & Foreign Affairs Strategic Policy: 13.
  56. ^ Victor Roudometof (October 2013). Globalization and Orthodox Christianity: The Transformations of a Religious Tradition. Routledge. ISBN 978-0415843737.
  57. ^ a b LeMay, Michael C. (2006). Guarding the Gates: Immigration and National Security. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Security International. p. 82. ISBN 978-0275992941.
  58. ^ Laliotou, Ioanna (2004). Transatlantic Subjects: Acts of Migration and Cultures of Transnationalism Between Greece and America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 185. ISBN 9780226468570.
  59. ^ Gerontakis, Steven (November 2012). "AHEPA vs. the KKK: Greek-Americans on the Path to Whiteness" (PDF). University of North Carolina at Asheville. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 November 2014.
  60. ^ "Mapping Segregation Project". Montgomery Planning. Retrieved 2022-05-05.
  61. ^ Aravosis, John (2 December 2014). "MTV reality show suggests Greek-Americans are in-bred, violent". americablog.com.
  62. ^ Zampathas, Olympia (3 December 2014). "Greeks Call to Cancel how MTV sees "Growing Up Greek"". xpress.sfsu.edu. San Francisco State University. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2014.
  63. ^ Papapostolou, Anastasios (4 December 2014). "AHEPA Calls MTV to Cancel "Growing Up Greek" Show; Asks Sponsors to Withdraw". Greek Reporter.
  64. ^ Nasios, Angelo (2024). "Why Do Some Polytheists Reject the Term "Pagan"?". In Owen, Suzanne; Puca, Angela (eds.). Pagan religions in five minutes. Religion in 5 minutes. Sheffield, South Yorkshire ; Bristol, CT: Equinox Publishing Ltd. ISBN 978-1-80050-524-7.
  65. ^ Phillips, Maggie (11 July 2024). "A Return to Mount Olympus". Tablet.
  66. ^ "Stealing Hellenism: The Erasure Of Greeks By NeoPagans". Greek City Times. 3 April 2023.
  67. ^ Harman, Sarah (19 May 2010). "Greek tourism put to the test by debt crisis". Deutsche Welle. Many Germans weren't afraid to voice anti-Greek sentiments.
  68. ^ Connolly, Kate (29 April 2010). "EU debt crisis: German papers whip up anti-Greece fury". The Guardian.
  69. ^ Weisenthal, Joe (5 February 2014). "Anti-Greek Resentment Still Playing Well In Germany". Business Insider.
  70. ^ a b Bickes, Hans; Otten, Tina; Weymann, Laura Chelsea (July 2014). "The financial crisis in the German and English press: Metaphorical structures in the media coverage on Greece, Spain and Italy". Discourse & Society. 25 (4): 424–445. doi:10.1177/0957926514536956. S2CID 144544544.
  71. ^ "European Unity on the Rock: Chapter 4. Views of EU Countries and Leaders". Pew Research Center. 29 May 2012. Archived from the original on 15 November 2014.
  72. ^ Pavlakis, Eleni (1 April 2013). "European Disintegration: Anti-Greek Bias in the Eurozone Crisis". CUREJ: College Undergraduate Research Electronic Journal. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania School of Arts and Sciences. p. 24.
  73. ^ Beugel, Ingeborg (21 June 2011). "The anti-Greece campaign of the international media". ROAR Magazine.
  74. ^ "Enough 'Greek bashing' says German FM". Kathimerini. 31 August 2012.
  75. ^ Allen, Patrick (6 September 2011). "Germany Shouldn't Tolerate 'Greece Bashing': Schroeder". CNBC.
  76. ^ Dabilis, Andy (17 August 2012). "Schroeder, Chatzimarkakis Want Greek-Bashing To Stop". Greek Reporter.

Read other articles:

التحديDefianceمعلومات عامةالصنف الفني حربالمواضيع الحرب العالمية الثانية — الهولوكوست تاريخ الصدور 2008مدة العرض 137 دقيقةاللغة الأصلية الإنجليزية والروسية والألمانية[؟]البلد الولايات المتحدةالجوائز  المجلس الوطني للمراجعة: الأفلام العشر الأولى موقع الويب defiancemovie.com (ا

 

 

هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (يونيو 2019) بليندا أنغ   معلومات شخصية الميلاد 24 أبريل 1954 (69 سنة)  ماليزيا  مواطنة سنغافورة  الحياة العملية المدرسة الأم المدرسة الأنجلوصينية  [لغات أخرى]&#...

 

 

رون ليفينغستون معلومات شخصية الميلاد 9 أكتوبر 1925أوكلاند، كاليفورنيا  تاريخ الوفاة أغسطس 26, 1991 (عن عمر ناهز 65 عاماً) الطول 6 قدم 10 بوصة (2.1 م) مركز اللعب لاعب وسط الجنسية  الولايات المتحدة الوزن 100 كيلوغرام[1]  المدرسة الأم جامعة وايومنغ[2]  الحياة ال...

Social service agency in New York City United States historic placeHenry Street Settlementand Neighborhood PlayhouseU.S. National Register of Historic PlacesU.S. National Historic LandmarkNew York City Landmark (2011)Henry Street SettlementLocation263-267 Henry St., and466 Grand StreetManhattan, New York CityCoordinates40°42′50″N 73°59′7″W / 40.71389°N 73.98528°W / 40.71389; -73.98528Area1 acre (0.40 ha)Built1827[2]Architect267: Buchman & F...

 

 

Micaela Ramazzotti Información personalNacimiento 17 de enero de 1979 (44 años)Roma, Italia ItaliaNacionalidad ItalianaFamiliaCónyuge Paolo Virzì Información profesionalOcupación Actriz de cine Años activa desde 1999[editar datos en Wikidata] Micaela Ramazzotti (Roma, 17 de enero de 1979) es una actriz italiana casada con el director y guionista Paolo Virzì. Filmografía (selección) 2000. Zora la vampira, versión cinematográfica de este conocido cómic italiano,...

 

 

Ante Žižić Informações pessoais Nome completo Ante Toni Žižić Data de nasc. 04 de janeiro de 1997 (26 anos) Local de nasc. Split, Croácia Altura 6 ft 11 in (2.11 m) Peso 254 lb (115 kg) Informações no clube Clube atual Maccabi Tel Aviv Número 23 Posição Pivô Clubes profissionais Ano Clubes Partidas (pontos) 2013-20142014–2016 20142016–2017 2017–20202017–20182020-presente Kaštela Cibona →Gorica Darüşşafaka Cleveland Cavaliers →Canton Charge Maccabi Tel ...

Indy Racing League musim 1996–1997Indy Racing LeagueMusimLomba10Tanggal mulai18 Agustus 1996Tanggal berakhir11 Oktober 1997PenghargaanJuara pembalap Tony StewartPemenang Indianapolis 500 Arie Luyendyk← 19961998 → Indy Racing League musim 1996-97 merupakan musim kedua dari Indy Racing League yang memperlombakan 10 lomba. Musim ini di mulai dari tanggal 18 Agustus 1996 dan berakhir pada 11 Oktober 1997. Tampil sebagai juara di musim ini adalah Tony Stewart. Pranala luar ...

 

 

维基百科中的醫學内容仅供参考,並不能視作專業意見。如需獲取醫療幫助或意見,请咨询专业人士。詳見醫學聲明。 扁桃體(tonsil)舊名扁桃腺[註 1],是人和两栖类以上动物,鼻后孔的顶壁或咽与口腔、鼻腔交界处黏膜下淋巴上皮组织所集成的团块的通称,因人类张口最容易察觉的腭扁桃體外形像扁桃一樣而得名。 扁桃体是重要的淋巴器官,其产生的淋巴细胞和抗...

 

 

Kapitan Phoa Beng GanKapitan Cina Batavia ketigaMasa jabatan1645–1663PendahuluKapitan Lim Lak KoPenggantiKapitan Gan DjieDaerah pemilihanBatavia Informasi pribadiPekerjaanKapitan CinaSunting kotak info • L • B Phoa Beng Gan, Kapitan Cina (juga disebut sebagai Bingam atau Phoa Bing Gam (Hanzi: 潘明岩甲; Pinyin: Pān Míngyán Jia) di sejumlah literatur tua) dulu adalah seorang birokrat dan insinyur berlatar belakang Tionghoa Indonesia. Phoa paling dikenal berkat pro...

Чорна ВенераVénus noire Жанр драма / історичнийРежисер Абделатіф КешишПродюсер Шарль Жилібер, Марін Карміц, Натанаель КарміцСценарист Абделатіф КешишУ головних ролях Яхіма ТорресАндре ДжейкобсОператор Любомир БакчевКінокомпанія MK2 Productions / France 2 Cinéma / CinéCinémaДистриб'ютор Luck...

 

 

List of events ← 1887 1886 1885 1888 in the United States → 1889 1890 1891 Decades: 1860s 1870s 1880s 1890s 1900s See also: History of the United States (1865–1918) Timeline of United States history (1860–1899) List of years in the United States 1888 in the United States1888 in U.S. states States Alabama Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi M...

 

 

Season of television series Season of television series Packed to the RaftersSeason 1Season 1 DVDCountry of originAustraliaNo. of episodes22ReleaseOriginal networkSeven NetworkOriginal release26 August 2008 (2008-08-26) –24 March 2009 (2009-03-24)Season chronologyNext →Season 2 List of episodes The first season of Packed to the Rafters, an Australian drama television series, began airing on 26 August 2008 on the Seven Network. The season concluded on 24 March 2009 afte...

See also: List of journalists killed in Ukraine and List of journalists killed in Russia As of 16 May 2023[update], at least 17 civilian journalists and media workers have been killed in the line of duty since the Russo-Ukrainian War began in 2014. Six have been Russian, four Ukrainian, one Italian, one American, one Lithuanian, one Irish and two French. An initial wave of journalist fatalities occurred in the early stages of the war in Donbas in 2014, starting with Italian ...

 

 

Human settlement in EnglandCuxtonLooking south, Cuxton seen from Ranscombe Farm. In the distance is the cement works at HallingCuxtonLocation within KentPopulation2,627 (2011)[1]OS grid referenceTQ709665Civil parishCuxtonUnitary authorityMedwayCeremonial countyKentRegionSouth EastCountryEnglandSovereign stateUnited KingdomPost townROCHESTERPostcode districtME2Dialling code01634PoliceKentFireKentAmbulanceSouth East Coast UK ParliamentRochest...

 

 

Greek mythological figure Kingdom of Flora by Nicolas Poussin. Canvass painting, 1631, 181×131 cm In Classical mythology, Crocus (Ancient Greek: Κρόκος, Krókos) was a mortal youth who was changed by the gods into a saffron flower.[1] Mythology Crocus was unhappy with his love affair with the nymph Smilax, and he was turned by the gods into a plant bearing his name, the crocus (saffron). Smilax is believed to have been given a similar fate and transformed into bindweed.[2&#...

Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang monarki Papua Nugini. Untuk informasi tentang negara lainnya yang berbagi orang yang sama sebagai penguasa monarki, lihat Wilayah Persemakmuran. Raja Papua NuginiSedang berkuasaCharles IIIsejak 9 September 2022 PerincianPewarisWilliam, Pangeran WalesPenguasa pertamaElizabeth IIPembentukan16 September 1975 Monarki Papua Nugini adalah sebuah sistem pemerintahan dimana seorang penguasa monarki warisan menjadi penguasa berdaulat dan kepala negara Papua Nugi...

 

 

2012 South Korean fantasy romance film A Werewolf BoyTheatrical release posterHangul늑대소년Hanja늑대少年Literal meaningWolf BoyRevised RomanizationNeukdaesonyeonMcCune–ReischauerNŭkdaesonyŏn Directed byJo Sung-heeWritten byJo Sung-heeProduced by Kim Su-jin Yu in-beom Jeong Tae-seong Starring Song Joong-ki Park Bo-young CinematographyChoi Sang-mukEdited byNam Na-yeongMusic byShim Hyun-jungProductioncompanyBidangil PicturesDistributed byCJ EntertainmentRelease dates September ...

 

 

This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (April 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Fairtrade FoundationTypeCharitable organisationFounded1992; 31 years ago (1992)HeadquartersLondon, E1United KingdomKey peopleMike Gidney (Chief Executive)Websitewww.fairtrade.org...

Приклад комп'ютерного моделювання гористої місцевості. 3D-моделювання поверхні Марсу. Графічне відображення цифрової моделі рельєфу. Цифровá модéль місцéвості, Цифровá модéль рельєфу (англ. Digital Elevation Model, DEM, інколи — англ. Digital Terrain Model, DTM) — у геоінформатиці — циф...

 

 

Mary ReedPersonalBorn1854Lowell, Ohio, U.S.Died1943Chandag, IndiaDenominationMethodist Episcopal ChurchProfessionmissionary to lepersSignatureSenior postingAwardsKaisar-i-Hind MedalProfessionmissionary to lepersPostIndia Mary Reed (1854-1943) was an American Christian missionary to India. For the first ten years of her career, she worked as a school teacher in her home state of Ohio. In 1884, she went to India as a missionary of the Cincinnati Branch of the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society ...

 

 

Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!