炼钢

煉鋼廠裡的二個電弧爐

炼钢是用铁矿(可能包括廢鐵)產生的製程。在炼钢過程中會去除雜質,也會控制的含量在一定的比例。炼钢時也可能會依照不同的鋼質等級要求,加入像是、碳及等合金元素,以製成合金鋼

历史

中世紀時的鍛鐵爐熔煉

古代鋼

鐵器最早出现在公元前4000年的古埃及蘇美,是从隕铁获得。公元前3000年至公元前2000年,在小亞細亞埃及美索不達米亞越來越多地由铁隕石中提練鐵。

最早的出土於土耳其安那托利亞卡曼-卡莱霍尤克英语Kaman-Kalehöyük遺跡,約有四千年的歷史[1]。公元前1400年東非人也用碳炉炼钢[2]中國台西遺址劉家河商墓也出土了公元前14世纪时商朝的五件铁刃铜钺。鐵在當時属于煉的副產品,稱為海綿鐵,可能是用锻铁炉英语Bloomery燒碳熔炼[3]

在公元前4世紀,伊比利亞半島出產了像利刃彎刀這種鋼兵器,而古羅馬軍隊則在用諾里庫姆出產的鋼兵器[4]。在戰國時代(公元前403-221年)中國用淬火來硬化鋼材[5],而到了汉朝熟鐵鑄鐵熔在一起炼出了中碳鋼[6][7]。東非的哈亞人在接近2,000年前發明了一種高熱高爐,使得他們在那個時候能用1,802 ℃的高溫來鍛造碳鋼[8]

坩埚钢

斯里蘭卡的莎瑪納拉威瓦发现了建于公元前1000年的炼铁炉[9],利用季风送風能够生产出高碳钢[10]印度在公元前300年就開始生產烏茲鋼[11]。中东大马士革地区进口乌兹钢打造出大马士革钢。自從烏茲鋼的鍛造法在公元五世紀從印度傳入了中國,中國人除了使用他們本身原創的鍛鋼法,也採用了烏茲鋼的生產法[12],做出來的鋼叫做鑌鐵。烏茲鋼也叫大馬士革鋼,以其耐用性,與所製刀刃不易損而聞名。最早是由多種不同的材料製成,當中包括各種稀有元素。它本質上是一種以鐵為主的複雜合金。最近研究指出,它的內部結構中含有碳納米管,所以這可能就是它那有名特性的來源,介於當時的鑄造技術有限,做出這種結構大概是出於偶然,而不是有意[13]。送風式爐用的是天然風,爐內放置含鐵的土壤,並用木材加熱。古代的僧伽羅人成功從每兩噸的土壤中提煉出一整噸的鋼材,當時來說可謂成就卓越。考古學家在莎瑪納拉威瓦找到了這樣的一個爐,並成功用古人的方法來生產鋼鐵[10][14]

把純鐵與碳(一般是木炭)放在一起於坩堝內慢慢加熱,冷卻後就能得到坩堝鋼,在公元九至十世紀前,梅爾夫這個地方就已經在生產坩堝鋼。在十一世紀,有證據指出宋朝的中國共有兩種煉鋼法:一種把小量熟鐵跟鑄鐵熔在一起,用於生產不均勻的次等鋼;另一種是現代貝塞麥煉鋼法的前身,透過在冷爐風下的重覆鍛造,達到不完全除碳的效果[15]

現代煉鋼

一座位於英格蘭錫菲爾德的貝塞麥轉爐

從十七世紀起,歐洲式煉鋼的第一步就是用高爐把鐵礦煉成生鐵[16]。最早期爐子裏燒的是木炭,現代方法則改為燒焦炭,事實證明後者要比前者便宜得多[17][18][19]

從鐵條開始的過程

在這些過程中,生鐵需要在精煉廠中接受精煉,以生產出鐵條(熟鐵),之後再拿鐵條去煉鋼[16]

滲碳法煉鋼的程序被記載於一篇在1574年布拉格出版的論文中,並且早在1601年紐倫堡人就在用這方法煉鋼。一本在1589年那不勒斯出版的書中有提及相近的方法,用於製作經表面硬化的盔甲與銼。這套程序在1614年被引入英格蘭,而巴茲爾·布魯克爵士於1610年代在什羅普郡柯爾布魯德爾生產這種鋼[20]。這套方法的原材料是熟鐵造的鐵條。在十七世紀期間,最好的熟鐵是瑞典斯德哥爾摩以北所產的厄勒格倫德鐵。到了十九世紀這種鐵還是最常用的原料,也就是在用這套方法的期間,幾乎用的都是這種鐵[21][22]

坩堝裏燒出來的鋼叫坩堝鋼,它是沒有經過鍛造的,因此成品會比均勻。以前大部份的爐都不能達到能熔掉鋼的溫度。現代的坩堝鋼工業最早是由本傑明·漢特斯曼於1740年代的發明所衍生的。一般會把滲碳鋼(以滲碳法製成的鋼)放在坩堝或熔爐裏面熔掉,然後鑄成鋼錠[22][23]

從生鐵開始的過程

位於勃蘭登堡工業博物館的一台西門子-馬丁烤鋼爐
從電弧爐倒出來的白熱鋼

煉鋼的現代史從1858年[24][25] 引進亨利·貝塞麥貝塞麥煉鋼法開始。他的原料是生鐵[26]。他的煉鋼法讓低成本大量生產變得可行,因此從前用熟鐵的地方現在都用軟鋼[27]。吉爾克萊斯特-托馬斯煉鋼法(或基本貝塞麥煉鋼法)是貝塞麥煉鋼法的改良版,就是在轉爐內部鋪上一層鹽基材料,以達到除磷的效果。煉鋼的另一項改良就是西門子-馬丁煉鋼法,能夠補足貝塞麥煉鋼法的缺點[22]

在使用碱性氧氣煉鋼林茨-多納維茨煉鋼法出現後,上述的煉鋼法都被淘汰了,碱性氧氣煉鋼法及其他氧氣煉鋼法是在1950年代被開發出來的。碱性氧氣煉鋼法比其他方法優勝是因為,被泵到表面上的氧氣會限制雜質,而從前雜質能夠從所用的空氣中進入[28]。時至今日,用電弧爐來重新處理廢金屬是很常見的,處理後能生產出新的鋼。它也可用於把生鐵轉化成鋼,但需要使用大量電力(每噸需要約440 kWh),所以一般只能在有大量廉價電力供應的情況下才有經濟效益[29]。 炼钢的工藝已存在上千年,

但一直到十九世紀中才商業化英语Commercialization,進行大量生產。像坩堝鋼製程就是古代的炼钢製程。在1850年代以及1860年的贝塞麦转炉炼钢法平炉炼钢法讓炼钢變成重工業的一部份。

現今炼钢的商業製程主要有二種,分別是以高爐中的液態生鐵以及廢鐵為主要材料的鹼性氧氣煉鋼英语basic oxygen steelmaking,以及用廢鐵或直接還原鐵(DRI)為主要材料的電弧爐(EAF)煉鋼。氧氣煉鋼主要是以鋼爐中反應的放熱特性作為其燃料。而EAF煉鋼是由電能來熔化廢鐵或直接還原鐵。近年來的EAF煉鋼也使用比較多的化學能,因此也比較類似氧氣煉鋼[30]

炼钢是世界上主要的溫室氣體排放產業之一。截至2020年 (2020-Missing required parameter 1=month!),全世界炼钢排放的溫室氣體約佔總數的10%[31]。為了氣候變化緩解,產業需要找到可以大幅減少溫室氣體排放的方法[32]。McKinsey公司在2020年提出了一些可能可以減少溫室氣體排放的技術,包括碳捕捉、製造時的再利用、以及將電弧爐的電源改用太陽能或是風能,或是在製程中製造潔淨燃料氫氣[32]

參考資料

  1. ^ Ironware piece unearthed from Turkey found to be oldest steel. The Hindu (Chennai, India). 2009-03-26 [2009-03-27]. (原始内容存档于2009-03-29). 
  2. ^ Civilizations in Africa: The Iron Age South of the Sahara. Washington State University. [2007-08-14]. (原始内容存档于2007-06-19). 
  3. ^ Wagner, Donald B. Early iron in China, Korea, and Japan. [2007-02-28]. (原始内容存档于2007-02-05). 
  4. ^ "Noricus ensis," Horace, Odes, i. 16.9
  5. ^ Wagner, Donald B. Iron and Steel in Ancient China: Second Impression, With Corrections. Leiden: E.J. Brill. 1993: 243. ISBN 90-04-09632-9. 
  6. ^ Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. 1986: 563. 
  7. ^ Gernet, 69.
  8. ^ Africa's Ancient Steelmakers页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆). Time Magazine, Sept. 25, 1978.
  9. ^ Wilford, John Noble. Ancient Smelter Used Wind To Make High-Grade Steel. The New York Times. 1996-02-06 [2012-07-27]. (原始内容存档于2021-04-16). 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Juleff, G. An ancient wind powered iron smelting technology in Sri Lanka. Nature. 1996, 379 (3): 60–63. Bibcode:1996Natur.379...60J. doi:10.1038/379060a0. 
  11. ^ Ann Feuerbach, 'An investigation of the varied technology found in swords, sabres and blades from the Russian Northern Caucasus' IAMS 25 for 2005, pp. 27–43 (p. 29) 互联网档案馆存檔,存档日期2011-04-30., apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis.
  12. ^ Needham, Volume 4, Part 1, p. 282.
  13. ^ Sanderson, Katharine. Sharpest cut from nanotube sword. News nature (Nature). 2006-11-15. doi:10.1038/news061113-11. 
  14. ^ Wayman, M L and Juleff, G. Crucible Steelmaking in Sri Lanka. Historical Metallurgy. 1999, 33 (1): 26. 
  15. ^ Hartwell, Robert. Markets, Technology and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry. Journal of Economic History. 966, 26: 53–54. 
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 Tylecote, R. F. A history of metallurgy 2 edn, Institute of Materials, London 1992, pp. 95–99 and 102–105.
  17. ^ Raistrick, A. A Dynasty of Ironfounders (1953; York 1989)
  18. ^ Hyde, C. K. Technological Change and the British iron industry (Princeton 1977)
  19. ^ Trinder, B. The Industrial Revolution in Shropshire (Chichester 2000)
  20. ^ Barraclough, K. C. Steel before Bessemer: I Blister Steel: the birth of an industry (The Metals Society, London, 1984), pp. 48–52.
  21. ^ King, P. W. The Cartel in Oregrounds Iron: trading in the raw material for steel during the eighteenth century. Journal of Industrial History. 2003, 6 (1): 25–49. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Iron and steel industry. Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. 
  23. ^ K. C. Barraclough, Steel before Bessemer: II Crucible Steel: the growth of technology (The Metals Society, London, 1984).
  24. ^ Erickson, Charlotte. British industrialists: steel and hosiery 1850-1950. Cambridge University Press. 1986: 141–142 [1959]. ISBN 0-566-05141-9. 
  25. ^ Bessemer, Sir Henry. An Autobiography. London: Engineering. 1905: 176, 180. 
  26. ^ Swank, James Moore. History of the Manufacture of Iron in All Ages. 1892. ISBN 0-8337-3463-6. 
  27. ^ Bessemer process 2. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2005: 168. 
  28. ^ Basic oxygen process. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. 
  29. ^ Jones, J.A.T. ; Bowman, B. and Lefrank, P.A. Electric Furnace Steelmaking, in The Making, Shaping and Treating of Steel, pp. 525–660. R.J. Fruehan, Editor. 1998, The AISE Steel Foundation: Pittsburgh.
  30. ^ Turkdogan, E.T. Fundamentals of Steelmaking. London: Institute of Materials. 1996. ISBN 9781907625732. OCLC 701103539. 
  31. ^ Pooler, Michael. Europe leads the way in the 'greening' of steel output. Financial Times. 11 November 2020 [2020-11-20]. (原始内容需要付费订阅存档于2022-12-10). 
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 Decarbonization in steel | McKinsey. www.mckinsey.com. [2021-04-03]. (原始内容存档于2024-02-13). 

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Australian cricketer Mitchell SwepsonPersonal informationFull nameMitchell Joseph SwepsonBorn (1993-10-04) 4 October 1993 (age 30)BattingRight-handedBowlingRight-arm leg breakRoleBowlerInternational information National sideAustralia (2018–2022)Test debut (cap 464)12 March 2022 v PakistanLast Test8 July 2022 v Sri LankaODI debut (cap 236)29 March 2022 v PakistanLast ODI16 June 2022 v Sri LankaODI shirt no.22T20I debut (...

 

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