於蒙古羅斯內的弗拉基米尔公國,於13世纪末分封建立莫斯科公國。擊敗和兼併其他東北羅斯競爭者而崛起的莫斯科公國,在13世紀後脫離金帳汗國繼續擴張版圖,在與波蘭立陶宛聯邦對壘間將勢力範圍延伸至聶伯河左岸,被其稱之為「羅斯的重新統一」(The Reunification of Rus'),费奥多尔一世在1598年无子嗣的死亡引致了继位危机,并导致俄罗斯进入被称为动荡时期的无政府状态和内战时期。1613年,随着米哈伊尔·罗曼诺夫加冕为罗曼诺夫王朝的第一位沙皇,俄罗斯摆脱了动荡时期。俄羅斯於1654年6月奪取了白羅斯初代城邦波洛茨克[註 1],莫斯科大公此時便改稱「全羅斯君主:大羅斯、小羅斯和白羅斯」(The Sovereign of All Rus': the Great, the Little and the White)[2]。16世纪中叶伊凡四世时代,莫斯科大公国改称俄罗斯沙皇国。到18世纪彼得一世时代,通過瓜分波蘭和東擴領土遠至北美,變成为庞大的俄罗斯帝国,横跨从波兰到太平洋的广袤地域,莫斯科君主的頭銜再次由沙皇改為皇帝。直到19世紀末期整個西伯利亞被納入俄羅斯帝國版圖中,令莫斯科由一個在歐洲邊緣的王國變成史上最大的大陸帝國[3]。1861年,俄罗斯废除农奴制度。随后农民不断增加,对土地的需求也不断增长,急剧加大帝國內部的政治矛盾及統治壓力。从废除农奴制度到1914年第一次世界大战爆发,帝國推出斯托雷平土地改革、1906年宪法和国家杜马,极大地改变其经济和政治状况,只是皇帝依然没有意愿放弃独裁统治。
隨後拿破崙就對俄展開軍事行動,投入450,000兵力進入俄方領土,甚至在冬季來臨時佔據莫斯科(英语:French occupation of Moscow)以圖迫使亞歷山大重新接受其條件,伴隨高昂傷亡。俄羅斯方面則撤退應對,並使用焦土政策焚毀掉糧食作物,從而增加拿破崙方的物資後勤問題。由於未有預計到冬日大潮,拿破崙軍隊有高達85%~90%士兵因疾病、寒冷 、飢餓或農民游擊隊的伏擊而死亡。當拿破崙殘餘軍隊撤離時,俄軍乘勢追擊到中東歐,並於莱比锡擊敗對方進而佔據巴黎[61][62]。依照俄羅斯當時總人口有43,000,000左右[63],在1812年戰終時是有1,500,000人死亡,其中有大約250,000到300,000為軍人,剩餘者都是農民和農奴[64]。
^A. P. Shchapov, ‘Sibirskoe obshchestvo do Speranskogo’, Sochineniia,4 vols. (St. Petersburg, 1906–8), vol. 3, p. 673; Lantzeff, Siberia in the Seventeenth Century, ch. 5; Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent, pp. 83–4; Gentes, Exile to Siberia, pp. 29–31, 82–4, 135, 142–5; Richard Pipes, Russia Under the Old Regime, 2nd edn (London, 1995), p. 282; Witzenrath, Cossacks and the Russian Empire, chs. 1, 4.
^Raymond H.Fisher, The Russian Fur Trade 1550-1700, Berkeley: University of California Press,1943,v.
^For a discussion of the development of the class structure in Tsarist Russia see Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge University Press, 1988.
^Jarmo Kotilaine and Marshall Poe, Modernizing Muscovy: Reform and Social Change in Seventeenth-Century Russia, Routledge, 2004, p. 264. ISBN0-415-30751-1.
^斯奈德, 蒂莫西(美). 民族的重建:波蘭、烏克蘭、立陶宛、白俄羅斯,1569—1999. 南京: 南京大學出版社. 2020. ISBN 9787305221644.
^有關議題介紹,可參見 Gershon David Hundert, “Some Basic Characteristics of the Jewish Experience in Poland,” in Polonsky, From Shtetl to Socialism, 19-25; M.J. Rosman, The Lords'Jews, Cambridge, Mass.: Ukrainian Research Institute, 1990, 1-22。常被引用的章節為Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the Jews, vol. 16, New York: Columbia University Press,1976。
^Charles Morley, "Czartoryski's attempts at a new foreign policy under Alexander I." American Slavic and East European Review 12.4 (1953): 475-485.
^Stephen R. Burant, "The January Uprising of 1863 in Poland: Sources of Disaffection and the Arenas of Revolt." European History Quarterly 15#2 (1985): 131–156.
^Olga E. Maiorova, "War as Peace: The Trope of War in Russian Nationalist Discourse during the Polish Uprising of 1863." Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History 6#3 (2005): 501–534.
^Norman Davies: God's Playground: A History of Poland (OUP, 1981) vol. 2, pp. 315–333, 352-363
Becker, Seymour. "Nobility and Privilege in Late Imperial Russia", in American Historical Review 92:4 (October 1987) pp. 1006–1007.
Russia : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; edited by Glenn E. Curtis. Washington, DC : Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,1998. DK510.23 .R883 1998
Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Revolution, 1789–1848 Vintage, 1996.
Manning, Roberta. The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government. Princeton University Press, 1982.
Moss, Walter G. A History of Russia. Vol. 1: To 1917. 2d ed. Anthem Press, 2002.
Skocpol, Theda. States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China. Cambridge U Press, 1988.
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