Marijuana

Ang marijuana o sa Ingles ay cannabis at kilala bilang chongke ay isang preparasyon ng halamang cannabis na ginagamit bilang sikoaktibo at gamot o medisina. Ang

Marijuana
Marijuana
Namumulaklak na halamang Cannabis
Pinagmulang halamanCannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, Cannabis ruderalis
Bahagi ng halamanbulaklak
Pinagmulang heograpikoSentral Asya at Timog Asya.[1]
Mga aktibong sangkapTetrahydrocannabinol, Cannabidiol, Cannabinol, Tetrahydrocannabivarin
Pangunahing prodyuserAfghanistan, Burma, Canada, China, Colombia, India, Jamaica, Laos, Mexico, Netherlands, Pakistan, Paraguay,[2] Thailand, Turkey, United States
Pangunahing konsyumerBuong mundo

Ang marijuana o sa Ingles ay cannabis at kilala bilang chongke ay isang preparasyon ng halamang cannabis na ginagamit bilang sikoaktibo at gamot o medisina. Ang pangunahing sikoaktibong sangkap na kompuwesto nito ang tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) na isa sa 483 alam na kompuwesto ng halamang ito.[3] May iba pang mga 84 cannabinoid dito gaya ng cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV)[4][5] at cannabigerol (CBG).

Ang marijuana o chongke ay kadalasang kinokonsumo dahil sa mga epektong sikoaktibo at pisiolohikal nito na kinabibilangan ng tumaas na mood o pakiramdam o euphoria, relaksasyon [6] at tumaas na gana [7]

Ang marijuana o chongke ay ginagamit bilang drogang panlibangan o gamot gayundin bilang bahagi ng mga ritong pang-relihiyon. Ang pinakamaagang paggamit nito ay mula ika-3 milenyo BCE.[8] Simula ika-20 siglo, ang pagmamay-ari ng marijuana ay ipinagbabawal o ilegal sa maraming mga bansa sa buong daigdig.[9][10] Noong 2004, ang paggamit ng marijuana o chongke sa buong mundo ay tinatayang 4% ng populasyon ng mundo o mga 162 milyong katao at ang tinatayang 0.6% (22.5 milyong katao) ay gumagamit nito sa araw-araw.[11]

Mekanismo

Ang mekanismo ng marijuana o chongke sa tao ay naunawaan lamang bago matapos ang ika-20 siglo. Ang THC ng marijuana ay umaasal sa dalawang uri ng mga cannabinoid receptor sa tao na CB1 receptor at CB2 receptor na parehong G-Protein coupled receptor. Ang CB1 receptor ay matatagpuan sa utak at sa ilang mga peripheral tissue at ang CB2 receptor ay matatagpuan sa mga peripheral tissue gayundin sa mga selulang neuroglial. Ang mga cannabinoid receptor ay pinapagana ng mga cannabinoid na maaaring nalilikha mula sa loob ng katawan ng tao (endocannabinoid) o ipinakilala sa katawan ng tao gaya ng pagkonsumo ng marijuana o ibang mga sintetiko nito.


Pagiging adiktibo

Ayon kay Dr. Jack E. Henningfield ng National Institute on Drug Abuse (2010), sa mga nirangguhang anim na sustansiya sa kanilang pagiging adiktibo (marijuana, kapeina, cocaine, alak, heroin at nicotine), ang marijuana o chongke ang pinaka-hindi adiktibo, ang kapeina ang ikalawang pinaka-hindi adiktibo at ang nicotine ang pinaka-adiktibo.[12]

Paggamit medikal

Medikal na marijuana

Ang marijuana o chongke ay ginawang legal sa 18 estado ng Estados Unidos at Distrito ng Columbia para sa gamit-medikal. Kabilang sa medikal na paggamit ng marijuana o chongke ang pagpapaginhawa ng pagkahilo at pagsusuka, stimulasyon ng gutom sa kemoterapiya at mga pasyenteng may AIDS, pagbaba ng presyon sa matang intraokular at sa pangkalahatang pagpapaginhawa ng mga kirot sa katawan. Ang kompuwesto ng marijuana ay epektibo rin para gamutin ang schizophrenia ayon sa mga siyentipiko.

Ang marijuanang o chongke pang medikal ay natagpuang nagpaginhawa ng mga ilang sintomas ng multiple sclerosis[13] at spinal cord injuries[14][15][16][17][18]

Ang ibang mga pag-aaral ay nagsasaad na ang marijuana o mga cannabinoid o chongke ay magagamit sa paggamot ng pag-abuso ng alak,[19] amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,[20][21] collagen-induced arthritis,[22] asthma,[23] atherosclerosis,[24] bipolar disorder,[25][26] colorectal cancer,[27] HIV-Associated Sensory Neuropathy,[28] depression,[29][30][31][32] dystonia,[33] epilepsy,[34][35][36] digestive diseases,[37] gliomas,[38][39] hepatitis C,[40] Huntington's disease,[41][42] leukemia,[43] skin tumors,[44] methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA),[45] Parkinson's disease,[46] pruritus,[47][48] posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD),[49] psoriasis,[50] sickle-cell disease,[51] sleep apnea,[52] at anorexia nervosa.[53]

Epekto sa kanser

Natagpuan ng isang pag-aaral ng Universidad Complutense de Madrid na ang mga kemikal sa marijuana o chongke ay nagsanhi ng kamatayan ng mga selulang kanser ng utak ng tao. Sa mga selulang kanser ng utak ng tao na nilagay sa mga daga na ginamot ng kemikal ng marijuana o chongke, ang tumor ay lumiit. Natagpuan ng pag-aaral nila na ang THC ay nag-alis ng mga selulang kanser nang walang masamang epekto sa mga malulusog na selula.[54]

Ayon sa pag-aaral ng California Pacific Medical Center Research Institute noong 2007 at 2010, ang cannabidiol ay nagpahinto sa kanser sa suso na kumalat na sa buong katawan sa pamamagitan ng downregulation ng isang gene na tinatawag na ID1.[55]

[56]

Mga sanggunian

  1. ↑ Mahmoud A. ElSohly (2007). Marijuana and the Cannabinoids. Springer. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-59259-947-9.
  2. ↑ Sanie Lopez Garelli (25 November 2008). "Mexico, Paraguay top pot producers, U.N. report says". CNN International. Nakuha noong 28 September 2013.
  3. ↑ Ethan B Russo (2013). Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential. Routledge. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-136-61493-4.
  4. ↑ El-Alfy, Abir T; atbp. (2010). "Antidepressant-like effect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and other cannabinoids isolated from Cannabis sativa L". Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 95 (4): 434–42. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2010.03.004. PMC 2866040. PMID 20332000. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (); Unknown parameter |month= ignored ()
  5. ↑ Fusar-Poli P, Crippa JA, Bhattacharyya S; atbp. (2009). "Distinct effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and Cannabidiol on Neural Activation during Emotional Processing". Archives of General Psychiatry. 66 (1): 95–105. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.519. PMID 19124693. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (); Unknown parameter |month= ignored ()CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ↑ "Marijuana intoxication: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". Nlm.nih.gov. Nakuha noong 2013-07-12.
  7. ↑ "Marijuana: Factsheets: Appetite". Adai.uw.edu. Inarkibo mula sa orihinal noong 2016-03-03. Nakuha noong 2013-07-12.
  8. ↑ Martin Booth (2003). Cannabis: A History. Transworld. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-4090-8489-1.
  9. ↑ "Cannabis: Legal Status". Erowid.org. Nakuha noong 2011-10-30.
  10. ↑ UNODC. World Drug Report 2010. United Nations Publication. p. 198. Nakuha noong 2010-07-19.
  11. ↑ United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2006). Cannabis: Why We Should Care (PDF). Bol. 1. S.l.: United Nations. p. 14. ISBN 92-1-148214-3. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored ()
  12. ↑ "Relative Addictiveness of Drugs". The New York Times. Tfy.drugsense.org. 1994-08-02. Nakuha noong 2013-01-03.
  13. ↑ Zajicek J; Fox P; Sanders H; Wright, David; Vickery, Jane; Nunn, Andrew; Thompson, Alan; Uk Ms Research, Group (2003). "Cannabinoids for treatment of spasticity and other symptoms related to multiple sclerosis (CAMS study): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial" (PDF). Lancet. 362 (9395): 1517–26. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14738-1. PMID 14615106. Inarkibo mula sa orihinal (PDF) noong 2012-07-24. Nakuha noong 2013-09-29. {{cite journal}}: |first8= has generic name ()
  14. ↑ "Spinal Cord Injury and Disease". Therapeutic Uses of Marijuana. Medical Marijuana Information Resource Centre. Inarkibo mula sa orihinal noong 25 Agosto 2007. Nakuha noong 9 August 2009.
  15. ↑ Maurer M, Henn V, Dittrich A, Hofmann A (1990). "Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol shows antispastic and analgesic effects in a single case double-blind trial". European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience. 240 (1): 1–4. doi:10.1007/BF02190083. PMID 2175265.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ↑ Kogel RW, Johnson PB, Chintam R, Robinson CJ, Nemchausky BA (1995). "Treatment of Spasticity in Spinal Cord Injury with Dronabinol, a Tetrahydrocannabinol Derivative". American Journal of Therapeutics. 2 (10): 799–805. doi:10.1097/00045391-199510000-00012. PMID 11854790.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ "The treatment of spasticity with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in persons with spinal cord injury" (PDF). Spinal Cord. 45 (8): 551–62. 2007. doi:10.1038/sj.sc.3101982. PMID 17043680. Inarkibo mula sa orihinal (PDF) noong 2013-02-04. Nakuha noong 2013-09-29. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (); Unknown parameter |month= ignored ()
  18. ↑ Mack, Allyson; Janet Elizabeth Joy (2001). Marijuana as Medicine?: The Science Beyond the Controversy. National Academy Press. ISBN 0309065313.
  19. ↑ Thanos PK, Dimitrakakis ES, Rice O, Gifford A, Volkow ND (2005). "Ethanol self-administration and ethanol conditioned place preference are reduced in mice lacking cannabinoid CB1 receptors". Behavioural Brain Research. 164 (2): 206–13. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2005.06.021. PMID 16140402.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ↑ Carter GT, Rosen BS (2001). "Marijuana in the management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". The American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Care. 18 (4): 264–70. doi:10.1177/104990910101800411. PMID 11467101.
  21. ↑ Weydt P, Hong S, Witting A, Möller T, Stella N, Kliot M (2005). "Cannabinol delays symptom onset in SOD1 (G93A) transgenic mice without affecting survival". Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Other Motor Neuron Disorders. 6 (3): 182–4. doi:10.1080/14660820510030149. PMID 16183560.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ↑ Malfait AM; Gallily R; Sumariwalla PF; Malik, AS; Andreakos, E; Mechoulam, R; Feldmann, M (2000). "The nonpsychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an oral anti-arthritic therapeutic in murine collagen-induced arthritis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 97 (17): 9561–6. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.9561M. doi:10.1073/pnas.160105897. PMC 16904. PMID 10920191.
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  27. ↑ Patsos HA; Hicks DJ; Dobson RR; Greenhough, A; Woodman, N; Lane, JD; Williams, AC; Paraskeva, C (2005). "The endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide, induces cell death in colorectal carcinoma cells: a possible role for cyclooxygenase 2". Gut. 54 (12): 1741–50. doi:10.1136/gut.2005.073403. PMC 1774787. PMID 16099783.
  28. ↑ Abrams, D.I., MD; Jay, C.A., MD (2007). "Cannabis in painful HIV-Associated Sensory Neuropathy". Neurology. 68 (7): 515–521. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000253187.66183.9c. PMID 17296917. Nakuha noong 2/3/2011. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= ()CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  30. ↑ Denson TF, Earleywine M (2006). "Decreased depression in marijuana users" (PDF). Addictive Behaviors. 31 (4): 738–42. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.052. PMID 15964704. Inarkibo mula sa orihinal (PDF) noong 2013-07-28. Nakuha noong 2013-09-29.
  31. ↑ Jiang W; Zhang Y; Xiao L; Van Cleemput, J; Ji, SP; Bai, G; Zhang, X (2005). "Cannabinoids promote embryonic and adult hippocampus neurogenesis and produce anxiolytic- and antidepressant-like effects". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 115 (11): 3104–16. doi:10.1172/JCI25509. PMC 1253627. PMID 16224541.
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  33. ↑ Fox SH, Kellett M, Moore AP, Crossman AR, Brotchie JM (2002). "Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to assess the potential of cannabinoid receptor stimulation in the treatment of dystonia". Movement Disorders. 17 (1): 145–9. doi:10.1002/mds.1280. PMID 11835452.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  35. ↑ Marsicano G; Goodenough S; Monory K; Zieglgänsberger, H; Di Marzo, M; Behl, A; Lutz, SC; Cascio, MG; Gutiérrez, SO (2003). "CB1 cannabinoid receptors and on-demand defense against excitotoxicity". Science. 302 (5642): 84–8. Bibcode:2003Sci...302...84M. doi:10.1126/science.1088208. PMID 14526074.
  36. ↑ Bacci A, Huguenard JR, Prince DA (2004). "Long-lasting self-inhibition of neocortical interneurons mediated by endocannabinoids". Nature. 431 (7006): 312–6. Bibcode:2004Natur.431..312B. doi:10.1038/nature02913. PMID 15372034. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored ()CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  38. ↑ Lorente M; Carracedo A; Torres S; Natali, Francesco; Egia, Ainara; Hernández-Tiedra, Sonia; Salazar, María; Blázquez, Cristina; Guzmán, Manuel (2009). "Amphiregulin is a factor for resistance of glioma cells to cannabinoid-induced apoptosis". Glia. 57 (13): 1374–85. doi:10.1002/glia.20856. PMID 19229996.
  39. ↑ Ramer R, Hinz B (2008). "Inhibition of cancer cell invasion by cannabinoids via increased expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 100 (1): 59–69. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm268. PMID 18159069.
  40. ↑ Sylvestre DL, Clements BJ, Malibu Y (2006). "Cannabis use improves retention and virological outcomes in patients treated for hepatitis C". European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 18 (10): 1057–63. doi:10.1097/01.meg.0000216934.22114.51. PMID 16957511.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ↑ PMID 19228180 (PubMed)
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  42. ↑ PMID 20590577 (PubMed)
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  43. ↑ Powles T; te Poele R; Shamash J; Chaplin, T; Propper, D; Joel, S; Oliver, T; Liu, WM (2005). "Cannabis-induced cytotoxicity in leukemic cell lines: the role of the cannabinoid receptors and the MAPK pathway". Blood. 105 (3): 1214–21. doi:10.1182/blood-2004-03-1182. PMID 15454482.
  44. ↑ Casanova ML; Blázquez C; Martínez-Palacio J; Villanueva, Concepción; Fernández-Aceñero, M. Jesús; Huffman, John W.; Jorcano, José L.; Guzmán, Manuel (2003). "Inhibition of skin tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo by activation of cannabinoid receptors". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 111 (1): 43–50. doi:10.1172/JCI16116. PMC 151833. PMID 12511587.
  45. ↑ Appendino G, Gibbons S, Giana A, Pagani A, Grassi G, Stavri M, Smith E, Rahman MM (2008). "Antibacterial Cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa: A Structure—Activity Study". J Nat Prod. 71 (8): 1427–30. doi:10.1021/np8002673. PMID 18681481. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (); Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored ()CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ↑ Kreitzer AC, Malenka RC (2005). "Endocannabinoid-mediated rescue of striatal LTD and motor deficits in Parkinson's disease models". Nature. 445 (7128): 643–7. doi:10.1038/nature05506. PMID 17287809. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored ()
  47. ↑ Szepietowski JC, Szepietowski T, Reich A (2005). "Efficacy and tolerance of the cream containing structured physiological lipids with endocannabinoids in the treatment of uremic pruritus: a preliminary study". Acta Dermatovenerologica Croatica. 13 (2): 97–103. PMID 16324422.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  48. ↑ Bergasa NV (2005). "The pruritus of cholestasis". Journal of Hepatology. 43 (6): 1078–88. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2005.09.004. PMID 16253381.
  49. ↑ Ganon-Elazar E, Akirav I (2009). "Cannabinoid receptor activation in the basolateral amygdala blocks the effects of stress on the conditioning and extinction of inhibitory avoidance". J. Neurosci. 29 (36): 11078–88. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1223-09.2009. PMID 19741114. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored ()
  50. ↑ PMID 17157480 (PubMed)
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  51. ↑ PMID 16173972 (PubMed)
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  52. ↑ Carley DW, Paviovic S, Janelidze M, Radulovacki M (2002). "Functional role for cannabinoids in respiratory stability during sleep". Sleep. 25 (4): 391–8. PMID 12071539.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. ↑ Grotenhermen, Russo (2002) "Review of Therapeutic Effects." Chapter 11, p. 128 in Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential, Routledge, ISBN 0789015080.
  54. ↑ Salazar M; Carracedo A; Salanueva IJ; Cecconi, Sonia; Pandolfi, Mar; González-Feria, Ainara; Iovanna, Patricia; Guzmán, Cristina; Boya, Sofía (2009). "Cannabinoid action induces autophagy-mediated cell death through stimulation of ER stress in human glioma cells". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 119 (5): 1359–72. doi:10.1172/JCI37948. PMC 2673842. PMID 19425170. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored ()
  55. ↑ McAllister SD, Christian RT, Horowitz MP, Garcia A, Desprez PY (2007). "Cannabidiol as a novel inhibitor of Id-1 gene expression in aggressive breast cancer cells". Molecular Cancer Therapeutics. 6 (11): 2921–7. doi:10.1158/1535-7163.MCT-07-0371. PMID 18025276. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored ()CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. ↑ McAllister SD, Murase R, Christian RT; atbp. (22 September 2010). "Pathways mediating the effects of cannabidiol on the reduction of breast cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis". Breast Cancer Res Treat. 129 (1): 37–47. doi:10.1007/s10549-010-1177-4. PMC 3410650. PMID 20859676. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= ()CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

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