The West Lake (Chinese: 西湖; pinyin: Xīhú; Wu Chinese pronunciation:[siɦu]) is a freshwater lake in Hangzhou, China. Situated to the west of Hangzhou's former walled city, the lake has a surface area of 6.39 km2 (2.47 sq mi),[1] stretching 3.2 km (2.0 mi) from north to south and 2.8 km (1.7 mi) from east to west.[2] In the lake are four causeways, three artificial islands, and the Gushan, the only natural island.[1] Gentle hills surround the lake on its north, west, and south sides,[3] with the Leifeng and Baochu pagodas standing in pair on the south and north banks.[4] Several famous temples are nestled in the mountains west of the lake, including the temples of Lingying and Jingci.[4]
The lake, along with the surrounding hills, constitutes the West Lake Scenic Area, which is governed by the Management Committee of Hangzhou West Lake Scenic Area, a special administration dedicated to cultural preservation and gardening under the Hangzhou municipal government since 2002.[11] The first major Chinese tourist attraction to cancel admission fees,[12] the scenic area is crowded during public holidays.[13] In the 2024 National Day holiday, the area received 4.426 million visitors in seven days, a 30.92% rise from the previous year.[14]
Names
Historically, the lake has been referred to by various names, including the Qiantang Lake.[15] The first description of the waters near Hangzhou was made in the Book of Han finished in 111, which states,[16]
The Western Commandery Captain of Qiantang was stationed at the Wulin Hills, where the Wulin River originates. The river flows eastward into the sea, covering a distance of 830 li [350 km; 220 mi].
This statement about the Wulin River (武林水) is widely interpreted as the first mention of the West Lake, while the Wulin Hills (武林山) were believed to be the hills near the Lingyin Temple.[16]
Bai Juyi was among the first to refer to the lake as "West Lake", due to its location to the west of the city.[5]Su Shi was the first to use the name in official documents, in his request to the Imperial Court for the dredging of the lake in 1090.[17] The 16th century Chinese scholars considered the West Lake of Hangzhou to be the most famous among the 35 other lakes with the same name in China.[18] In English, the name is also romanised as Xi Hu,[6] or the Xi Lake.[2] Due to Su Shi's famous comparison with Xizi, the lake is also called Xizi Lake.[5]
History
Natural formation and dredging efforts
About 4,400 to 2,500 years ago, as sea levels fell, the Hangzhou-Jiaxing-Huzhou plain began to emerge, while the West Lake was merely a shallow bay. Over time, the Qiantang River gradually deposited sand and rocks outside this bay. About 2,000 years ago, a lagoon was formed. Streams from the surrounding mountains transformed the water into freshwater, but ongoing silt deposits gradually reduced the lake to a swamp.[19] In local folklore, when Qin Shi Huang (259–210 BC), the first emperor of China, visited Hangzhou, the West Lake was still part of the Qiantang River. The giant rock on the north bank of the West Lake was said to be where the emperor anchored his fleet. According to Records of the Grand Historian, during his visit in 210 BC, the emperor was halted in Hangzhou by the strong tide of the Qiantang River and had to take a detour westward to reach Shaoxing.[20] During the Eastern Han era (25–220), local official Hua Xin ordered the construction of a seawall to completely cut the lake off from the sea.[21][22] In 591, the government seat of Hangzhou, originally on the west shore, was relocated to the newly built walled city east to the lake. With the completion of the Grand Canal, Hangzhou, as its destination, became a transport hub of China.[23]
Before the Tang dynasty (618–907), the West Lake was a small and shallow body of water,[24] but continuous dredging efforts prevented it from becoming a swamp.[25] During the Jianzhong period (780–783) of the Tang dynasty, local official Li Mi diverted water from the into Hangzhou via an underground pipes, creating six ponds to secure the city's water supply. In 822, Bai Juyi dredged the West Lake and used the silt to build a long causeway between Qiantang and Yuhang Gates, which was named in his memory. Under the Wuyue Kingdom (907–932), with Hangzhou being the capital, King Qian Liu ordered annual dredging of the West Lake with soldiers to maintain water quality for water supply. In the Song dynasty, Su Shi (1037–1101) ordered the construction of the Su Causeway from dredged silt in 1089. He designated an area of the lake with three stone pagodas to prevent water chestnut planting and reduce silting, which may mark the origin of the "Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon."[26] By 1275, military patrols were appointed to maintain and police the lake, where littering of any rubbish or planting additional lotuses or water-chestnuts were forbidden.[27]
From literary tradition to tourism
Su Shi's Verse on West Lake by Zhao Mengfu in 1320
Literary works by renowned literati contributed to the fame of the West Lake among Chinese intellectuals.[5] Especially, the lake became associated with the two greatest poets of Middle-Period China, Bai Juyi and Su Shi.[27]: 51–52 Su Xiaoxiao, a famous courtesan and poet of Southern Qi (479–502), was buried upon the West Lake. Her life and poetry have inspired later poets, including Li He and Wen Tingyun. Over time, local history became intertwined with the natural beauty. For example, Bai Juyi celebrates Su Xiaoxiao's beauty and her connection to the enchanting scenery of the lake in one of his poem. When Su Shi (1037–1101) famously compared the West Lake to Xizi, one of the Four Beauties of ancient China, the lake became known as the Xizi Lake:[5]
水光瀲灧睛方好，
山色空濛雨亦奇。
欲把西湖比西子，
淡妝濃抹總相宜。
The shimmering water shines in clear light,
While misty mountains bring rain's charm to sight.
If West Lake I liken to Xizi fair,
Both light and heavy makeup suits her well.
West Lake by Japanese painter Tomita Keisen (1909), with a tribute to Bai Juyi in the writing
During the period of Wuyue Kingdom (907–978), numerous temples, pagodas, shrines, and grottoes were built or expanded around the lake, including Lingyin, Zhaoqing, Jingci, Li’an, Liutong, and Taoguang temples, as well as the Baochu, Liuhe, Leifeng, and White pagodas, due to the devotion of its rulers to Buddhism.[19] Since the 12th and 13th centuries, these temples, frequently visited by Japanese monks, played a significant role in circulating cultural images of the lake across East Asia, as these visitors returned to their home countries.[28]
Wars and conflicts in northern China during the Song dynasty—including invasions by the Khitan, Jurchen, and Mongols—triggered significant migration southward to the new capital, leading to urbanisation and economic prosperity. With city walls blocking much of the natural scenery, the West Lake became a favoured destination for urban residents seeking respite from the demands of city life and political turmoil.[5] Since 1129, the capital of the Song dynasty was relocated to Hangzhou, after the country lost its northern territories to the Jurchen. The imperial examination held every three years filled Hangzhou with educated individuals, who often enjoyed the lake's beauty and consulted fortune-tellers at lakeside temples. Visiting the West Lake inspired poems that reflected on their experiences and memories of the scenery.[29]
Scenic Attractions of West Lake (c. 14th century)
By the late Song dynasty, the West Lake had evolved into a significant hub where tourism emerged. While pilgrimage and contemplative retreat had previously been the main motives for travel, sightseeing gained wide acceptance as an activity focused on enjoyment and the appreciation of natural beauty, roughly at the same time as in western Europe.[30] Aesthetic appreciation of landscapes became a popular business, with diverse entertainment options which involved standardised routes and viewing orders made available to cater to various preferences and budgets. Tour guides, seasonal markets and specialty shops emerged.[5] The notion of Ten Scenes of West Lake was invented.[31] Boating on the lake was a popular pastime, with records noting hundreds of intricately carved, elegantly decorated boats gliding gracefully over the water.[5]
Decorated boats on the lake
Shortly after the Mongol conquest of China, the West Lake remained socially vibrant. The official records show that in 1309, the city received more than 1,200 foreign visitors within half a year, many from Turkestan and Europe. The West Lake was dredged and renamed the “Pond of Freeing Captive Animals” under Kublai Khan, while parts of the lake area were gradually cultivated into farmland. Among the visitors was Marco Polo, who describes the lake in his book,[32]
Inside the city there is a Lake which has a compass of some 30 miles: and all round it are erected beautiful palaces and mansions, of the richest and most exquisite structure that you can imagine, belonging to the nobles of the city. There are also on its shores many abbeys and churches of the Idolaters. In the middle of the Lake are two Islands, on each of which stands a rich, beautiful and spacious edifice, furnished in such style as to seem fit for the palace of an Emperor.
The booming tourism led to different interpretations. The lake was regarded as a literary tradition, a symbol of the state and a part of local history and knowledge, but for some, a symbol of extravagance and luxury.[29] One of the most famous portrayal comes from Lin Sheng, who penned a poem as a satirical commentary on how people were engrossed in their indulgence in Hangzhou's pleasures, rather than making efforts to reclaim the lost northern capital:[33]
山外青山樓外樓，
西湖歌舞幾時休？
暖風熏得遊人醉，
直把杭州作汴州。
Beyond the hills, more hills rise, beyond the pavilions, more pavilions stand.
When will the songs and dances on West Lake finally end?
The warm breeze intoxicates the travellers,
Making them mistake Hangzhou for Bianzhou.
In 1142, Yue Fei, a hawkish Chinese general known for his determined efforts to reclaim northern China, was executed by the dovish emperor and his chief councillor.[31][34] Yue's death marked the end of attempts to recapture the north, as the emperor prioritised peace despite the Song army's successes.[34] Yue Fei remained widely admired among Chinese people and was widely celebrated as a national hero.[35] In 1162, his wrongful execution was acknowledged, and his remains were moved to a tomb by the West Lake. Since 1221, a nearby temple has been repurposed in his memory.[4]
The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) saw the decline of tourism at the West Lake.[33] Government support for maintaining the lake diminished, as Mongol rulers placed their political and economic focus on northern China rather than the south.[33] The Mongol rulers, as well as local residents, blamed the lavish life upon the lake for the fall of Song. Therefore, the lake was abandoned.[33][36] When the Ming dynasty replaced Mongol rule, Hangzhou gradually regained its prosperity by the mid-15th century. However, the lake experienced droughts in 1442 and 1456, causing it to dry up temporarily.[31]
Revitalisation in Late Imperial China
Yanggong Causeway (est. 1508)
Since the mid-Ming era, renewed dredging projects rekindled public interest in West Lake. As Hangzhou developed as a publishing centre, the production of geographic texts stimulated tourism, which in turn further fuelled the publishing industry.[37] In 1508, Hangzhou governor Yang Mengying led a major dredging effort, repairing the Su and Bai Causeways and creating the Yanggong Causeway in his memory. This restoration returned the lake's appearance to its Tang dynasty splendour. Further construction works in 1576, 1607-1611 and 1621 built the Mid-lake Pavilion and the Lesser Yingzhou Islet.[38] The period of time saw the publication of a series of books on local history and culture which depicted the West Lake, inspiring Japanese gardens such as the Kyū Shiba Rikyū Garden.[38]
Ten Scenic Spots of West Lake (mid-18th century)
The Manchu conquered Hangzhou in 1645, which led to the construction of the Manchu city alongside the West Lake.[31] During the High Qing era (1683–1799), emperors frequented southern China, to symbolise their control over China.[31] Due to the visits by the Manchu emperors, the lake was fully dredged and renovated.[19] In 1689, a temporary imperial palace was built on the Gushan.[19] In 1722, Zhejiang governor Li Wei was ordered to dredge the lake.[31] In 1809, the Ruangongdun Islet was built with silted soil, which was named after Ruan Yuan, then governor of Zhejiang.[38]
The emperors revived and standardised the notion of the Ten Scenes of West Lake. The Kangxi Emperor inscribed titles for these scenes, which were later carved into stelae beneath ten pavilions. The Qianlong Emperor composed poems during his visits, which were then inscribed on the reverse side of Kangxi's stelae. He further inscribed the Eight Scenes of Dragon Well in the surrounding hills. In Beijing, imperial gardens, including the Garden of Delighted Spring and the Old Summer Palace, were designed to imitate the landscape designs of West Lake.[31]
After the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) destroyed the buildings beside the lake, the West Lake revived, as major Qing military leaders, magnates and ranking officials, such as Peng Yulin built their villas upon the lake, which later became their memorial temples and shrines that were later maintained by a dedicated division of local government.[39] In 1864, the West Lake Dredging Bureau was established, to manage the dredging of the West Lake.[19]
Following the 1911 revolution that ended the Qing dynasty, the Manchu Banner Garrison was dismantled, and imperial properties around the West Lake were nationalised.[31][40] A new business area was built at the former site of the Manchu Banner Garrison, which integrated the West Lake into the city.[41] The former imperial garden was converted into Zhongshan Park, named in honour of Sun Yat-sen.[31] The buildings associated with former Qing officials and generals were renamed to honour Ming loyalists, such as the Shrine of Former Martyrs.[39] The railway link between Hangzhou and Shanghai, completed in 1909, stimulated local tourism.[39] A great number of lakeside villas and garden were built, with the city walls torn down and tombs disallowed to be built around the lake.[19]
The Japanese seized Hangzhou in December 1937.[42][43] Under Japanese rule, deforestation of the mountains surrounding West Lake led to rapid silting of the lake from soil erosion, due to a lack of maintenance.[39] A Japanese shrine was built by the lake in October 1939, where the Japanese autumn festival was held to familiarise the ordinary Chinese people with Japanese Shinto.[44] With the Japanese surrender in 1945, tourism at West Lake flourished once again, although the city itself faced severe economic challenges due to hyperinflation.[31]
The Communists took Hangzhou shortly after the Nationalist retreat from the city to preserve the cultural relics of the West Lake in 1949. In the 1950s, major hydrological works, along with other construction projects, took place, to exemplify socialist achievements.[45]Hangzhou Botanical Garden and a flower garden was opened on the lake's west shore. The parks of Fish Viewing at the Flower Pond and Orioles Singing in the Willows were constructed. Lingyin Temple, Jingci Temple, Yue-Wang Temple, Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon, Mid-lake Pavilion and other spots were renovated.
President Richard Nixon at the West Lake Park in 1972
Since 1953, Mao Zedong stayed periodically at West Lake every year until his death in 1976.[46][47] To ensure his safety, the local government forcibly relocated residents suspected of connections with the Nationalists to labour camps. Shops near the lake were acquired by the state, and undercover security personnel were stationed at over 100 shops in the area. The tombs of notable figures—including Wu Song, Fang La, Yu Qian, Zhang Cangshui, Su Manshu, Su Xiaoxiao, and the Stuart family—as well as the temples of Yue Fei and Wen Tianxiang, were destroyed.[48] During the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), Liutong Temple and another temple were destroyed. Zhou Enlai ordered the closure of the Lingyin Temple to prevent it from being destroyed, but repairs were later made to many scenic sites, due to the visits by Norodom Sihanouk and Richard Nixon in 1972.[31]
After 1976, tourism to the lake revitalised. In 1983, the Hangzhou government refurbished temples and pavilions upon the lake. They also expanded Galloping Tiger Spring and established Curved Yard and Lotus Pool in Summer Park. The new site Exploring Plum Blossoms at Ling Peak was introduced, complemented by cultural events at Huanglong Cave and Ruangongdun Islet. In 1984, local media and societies held public vote to select the new "Ten Scenes" of the lake. In 1985, a pump at Zhakou to draw 300,000 cubic meters of water daily, were built to refresh the water in the lake. A sewage interception project, completed in 1981, installed over 17 kilometres of buried tunnels and 10 pumping stations. In 2000, the West Lake exposition was relaunched, drawing 1.4 million visitors. In 2002, Leifeng Pagoda was rebuilt where it collapsed in 1924.[49] During the 2016 G20 Hangzhou summit and the 2023 Asian Games, West Lake State Guest House was where Chinese president Xi Jinping met with foreign guests, such as Barack Obama[50] and Narendra Modi.[51]
General layout
Map of the West Lake
The layout of the West Lake features "one hill, two pagodas, three islets, four causeways and five lakes." Among them, ten classic scenic places are collectively known as the "Ten Scenes of West Lake".
Solitary Hill
The Gushan (孤山), or the Solitary Hill, is the only natural island on the West Lake. Connected to the northern shore by Xiling Bridge and Bai Causeway, Solitary Hill and Bai Causeway separate the North Inner Lake from the Outer West Lake. In local folklore, the island is grouped with the Broken Bridge and the Long Bridge as the "Three Oddities of West Lake": the Broken Bridge is not broken, Solitary Hill is not solitary, and the Long Bridge is not long. During the Qing dynasty, Solitary Hill became part of a detached palace for emperors visiting Hangzhou. Wenlan Pavilion, the royal library on the island, housed a valuable collection of literary works and rare texts. After the 1911 revolution, the palace grounds were transformed into Zhongshan Park to honor Sun Yat-sen, a key figure in the revolution. The Wenlan Pavilion and other former palace buildings were incorporated into the Zhejiang Provincial Museum, while a new building next to the Pavilion was completed in 1912 to host the Zhejiang Library.[citation needed]
Two pagodas
Baochu Pagoda and Beishan Road
Leifeng Pagoda (雷峰塔), originally built in 975, is located on Sunset Hill. According to local tales, it plays a central role in the legend of the White Snake. Leifeng Pagoda was rebuilt in 2002 after the original structure collapsed in 1924, and it remains a popular tourist spot with stunning views of the lake.[4]
Baochu Pagoda (保俶塔), built in 963, stands on Precious Stone Hill. Unlike the more elaborate Leifeng Pagoda, Baochu is a slender, simple structure believed to have been built to pray for the safe return of a local official.[4]
Three Islets
There are three artificial islets on the West: Lesser Yingzhou Islet, Mid-lake Pavilion, and Ruangong Islet. Each was constructed during the Ming and Qing dynasties by dredging lake sediment.
Lesser Yingzhou Islet (小瀛洲), also known as Three Pools Mirroring the Moon, is especially famous for the small stone pagodas that rise from the water around it. During the Mid-Autumn Festival, these pagodas are lit, creating a scene called "Three Pools Mirroring the Moon", which has become one of the "Ten Scenes of West Lake."
Mid-lake Pavilion (湖心亭), the smallest of the three, is a pavilion surrounded by the Outer West Lake. It is renowned for Zhang Dai's essay on watching the snow from the pavilion.
Ruan Gong Islet (阮公墩), constructed in 1800, is named after Ruan Yuan, who was the Governor of Zhejiang at the time. Currently, the islet is not open to visitors, as it serves as a natural reserve.
Four Causeways
Three major causeways divides the West Lake into five sections, which include:[52]
Bai Causeway (白堤) – Originally called the White Sand Causeway, it was naturally formed before the Tang dynasty (618–907) and reinforced between 766 and 779. The causeway collapsed during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) and was rebuilt in 1589. By the Qing dynasty (1644–1911), the causeway became known as the Bai Causeway, in his memory.[26][53]
Su Causeway (苏堤) – Built in 1089 under the direction of Su Shi during his term as mayor, this causeway, along with six bridges to allow ferry passages, connects Quyuan on the north shore to Huagang on the south shore. It separates the West Inner Lake from the Outer West Lake.
Yanggong Causeway (杨公堤) – Constructed in 1508 by local official Yang Mengying to mitigate flooding, this causeway features six bridges that facilitate ferry access between the West Inner Lake and Outer West Lake.
Additionally, Zhaogong Causeway (赵公堤), also known as the Jinsha Causeway,[54] was built in 1242, connecting Quyuan to the Su Causeway. It was named after Zhao Yuchou, then-mayor of Lin'an.
Five Lakes
The current lake, roughly oval in shape, was dredged during past dynasties and spans 3.3 km from north to south, 2.8 km from east to west, with a shoreline circumference of 15 km and a total water area of 5.6 square kilometres. Divided by Gushan Hill, the Su Causeway, and the Bai Causeway, it consists of five distinct water bodies interconnected by bridge arches.[52][54]
The Main Lake is bordered by Hubin Road to the east, Su Causeway to the west, Nanshan Road to the south, and Bai Causeway to the north.[54]
The West Inner Lake lies west of the Su Causeway.[54]
The North Inner Lake, also known as the Back Lake or the Inner Lake, extends from Duanqiao Bridge in the east to Xiling Bridge in the west, Gushan Hill to the south, and Beishan Street to the north.[54]
Yuehu Lake is located south of Yue Fei's Temple, west of the Su Causeway, and south of the Breeze-ruffled Lotus at Winding Garden. Sources from the Republic of China era identify it as lying north of the Inner Lake, separated by the Zhaogong Causeway. This lake is likely named after Yue Fei's Tomb, though earlier documentation is unavailable.[54]
Lesser South Lake lies north of Nanshan Road, west of the Su Causeway, and south of the Viewing Fish at Flowery Pond sight. Republican-era records describe it as situated west of Yinbo Bridge and south of Guanyu Pavilion.[54]
Traditionally, there are ten classic scenic spots on the West Lake, each remembered by a four-character epithet. Collectively, they are known as the Ten Scenes of West Lake, of which the rating dates back to the Song dynasty. Each is marked by a stele with an epithet written in the calligraphy of the Qianlong Emperor.[55] The ten scenes include:[56]
On rainy or misty days, parts of the South and North Peaks seem to emerge and disappear within the clouds, with their tops still visible above the mist
Buddhism's roots around the West Lake extend back to the 4th century with the establishment of Lingyin Temple and Tianzhu Temple. During the Five Dynasties period (907–960), the Wuyue rulers, who were devoted Buddhists, initiated extensive temple construction in the region. Notable temples from this period include Jingci Temple on Nanping Hill, Yunqi Temple in Fan Village, and Shangtianzhu Temple on Tianzhu Hill. In addition to these temples, pagodas such as Liuhe, Leifeng, and Baochu were erected, along with intricate stone Buddhist carvings in Yanxia Cave, Shiwu Cave, and on Feilaifeng Peak. During the Song Dynasty, Lingyin Temple and Jingci Temple gained recognition as two of the "Five Mountains and Ten Temples." Across the West Lake Scenic Area, there are 30 Buddhist sites officially designated as protected heritage sites.[4] The Baopu Taoist Monastery, rebuilt in the 17th century, enshrines Ge Hong, a prominent Taoist scholar, alchemist, and medical scientist, who conducted Taoist practices and alchemical experiments on Geling Ridge near the West Lake.[4]
Tombs and memorial halls
Tombs of Yue Fei and Yue Yun
Yue Fei's Tomb and Temple serve as a memorial to Yue Fei, a legendary figure in Chinese history known for his loyalty and filial piety. Built in 1163, the tomb honours Yue Fei as a national hero and epitomises the Confucian values that have deeply influenced Chinese society for centuries.[4] Tomb of Su Xiao Xiao is located near the Xiling Bridge on the north bank of the West Lake.
Pavilions and monuments
Wenlan Pavilion, built in 1784 and rebuilt in 1880, was the only one that exists library among the four libraries commissioned by the Qing imperial family for the collection of The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries.[4]
The northeastern shore of the West Lake features Hubin Park, a series of six connected parks along the lakefront, surrounded by upscale shopping centers and hotels. At Park No. 3, visitors can enjoy a musical fountain with free performances every evening. To the northwest, Hangzhou Flower Nursery and Hangzhou Botanical Garden showcase a diverse array of flowers and plants. In the southwest, Taiziwan Park and Huagang Park draw visitors in spring with colorful tulips and seasonal blossoms. On the southeastern shore, Liulangwenying Park and Changqiao Park offer scenic views and spaces for relaxation.
Around the West Lake, several historic private gardens have been preserved. Liu Villa, on the northwest shore, was originally a private Qing-dynasty garden reflecting classic Chinese landscape design. Today, it serves as the West Lake State Guest House, a luxury hotel known for hosting important events and guests. Wang Villa, on the southwestern corner of the West Lake, was also built during the Qing dynasty and has since been restored as part of Xizi Hotel. Jiang Villa, on the eastern shore near the Lakeside area, now operates as the Lakeside Tea House. Guo Villa, located on the northwestern shore at the foot of Solitary Hill near Qixia Ridge, is one of Hangzhou's best-preserved Qing-dynasty gardens and is open to the public as a government-run park.
The West Lake is home to many Western-style residences constructed during the Republic of China era (1911–1949). On Gushan (Solitary Hill), notable sites include the Memorial Pavilion to Sun Yat-sen, the former residences of Du Yuesheng and Chiang Kai-shek, as well as Yiyunji Lu Villa. Along Beishan Road, significant landmarks feature the Former Residence of Chiang Ching-kuo and various villas such as Run Lu, Ru Lu, Xing Lu, and Baoqing, in addition to notable hotels like Hangzhou Hotel, Xinxin Hotel, and Qiushui Villa. The eastern shore also hosts historic structures including Shihan Jingshe Villa, Long Bridge Villa, Guo Villa, and the former residence of Huang Fu. Modern architecture complements these historical sites, with buildings such as the West Lake Museum and a range of luxury hotels like the Grand Hyatt Hangzhou, upscale shopping centers, such as the Hubin Yintai in77 complex.
Hydrology
Misty Trees by Nine Streams
With a catchment area spanning 21.22 square kilometers, the lake supports an annual runoff and storage volume of about 14 million cubic meters each. The lake draws around 120 million cubic meters of water annually from the Qiantang River. Natural inflows come from the Jinsha, Longhong, Qishan (also known as Huiyin), and Changqiao streams. The lake's water level is maintained at a consistent Yellow Sea reference level of 7.15 meters, fluctuating by only ±0.05 meters. Seasonal water levels range from a high of 7.70 meters to a low of 6.92 meters, with a variation of approximately 50 centimeters. With a storage capacity of about 14.3 million cubic meters, the lake averages 2.27 meters in depth, reaching a maximum of 5 meters and a minimum of less than 1 meter. Average annual precipitation directly over the lake amounts to 5.63 million cubic meters, while the lake's water system has a scour coefficient of 1.49. During dry seasons, when the reservoir gate is closed, the flow rate drops to zero, and even during the flood season, it rarely exceeds 0.05 m/s.[63]
Located on the southeastern edge of China's hilly regions and the northern boundary of the subtropical zone, West Lake receives an annual solar radiation of 100–110 kcal/cm2 and enjoys 1,800–2,100 sunshine hours per year.[64] Due to Hangzhou's mild climate, the West Lake seldom freezes during winter. The last complete freezing of the lake occurred in January 1977, when the city experienced extreme cold, with temperatures plunging to a record low of -8.6 °C. Partial and temporary freezing, however, is observed almost annually, contingent on weather conditions.[65]
Flora
The West Lake is surrounded by rich and varied vegetation. Within the nominated area, there are 1,369 species of spermatophytes from 739 genera in 184 families, including 28 gymnosperm species from 19 genera in 7 families and 1,273 angiosperm species from 675 genera in 150 families. Additionally, there are 68 species of pteridophytes from 45 genera in 27 families.[66]
Seasonal Flowers
Lotus Flowers upon the Yuehu Lake
The four main seasonal flowers of the West Lake landscape—peach blossoms, lotus flowers, osmanthus, and plum blossoms—are closely connected to Hangzhou's cultural heritage such as the Ten Scenes of West Lake. These plants embody the concept of integrating seasonal beauty into the landscape design of these scenic areas.[67]
Peach trees and willows line the shores and causeways, adding colour to the lake during spring and early summer. On the Su and Bai Causeways, one willow are typically intercropped with one peach, a pattern designed by Su Shi in the 11th century.[67]
Lotus flowers are grown in 14 designated areas covering around 20 hectares, primarily found in the North Inner Lake and Yuehu Lake.[67]
Osmanthus trees are widely planted throughout the gardens along the banks of the West Lake, with Manjuelong and the Hangzhou Botanical Garden being the most notable spots for their dense plantings and fragrant blooms in autumn.[67]
The plum blossom, which represents steadfastness and purity in Chinese culture, are grown in Lingfeng Hill, Gushan Hill, and the Xixi Stream.[67]
Longjing Tea
Tea Plantation at Longjin
The Longjing Tea Plantation is nestled in the hills to the west of the West Lake and is renowned for producing Longjing tea, a variety that thrives due to the unique geographical conditions of the area. The tea plants are cultivated on the slopes of these hills, arranged on curved or open terraces near brooks in neatly organised plots. This region benefits from a monsoonal humid climate typical of the northern subtropical zone, characterised by distinct seasons, adequate rainfall, and year-round moisture. The plantation's micro-climate, influenced by its location between the Qiantang River to the north and the Jiuxi Streams to the south, creates a foggy and misty environment ideal for tea growth, especially in spring. The surrounding hills, such as Tianzhu Hill and Beigao Peak, protect the area from cold winds, while the valley leading to the Qiantang River draws in humid air, maintaining a warm, wet climate.[67]
Ancient trees
The area around the West Lake also features numerous ancient and rare trees, many associated with historic temples and monasteries such as Lingyin Temple and Tianzhu Temple, as well as Wushan and Gushan Hills. Among these, 125 trees from 22 species are over 300 years old, serving as living records of the region's ecological history.[66]
Economy
According to the Hangzhou Statistical Bureau, in 2017, the West Lake Scenic Area recorded a gross regional product of 112.11 billion yuan (approximately 16.70 billion US dollars). The services sector contributed around 90% of this figure, while manufacturing accounted for roughly 10%, and agriculture contributed less than 0.1%. The GDP per capita for the region was 136,330 yuan (approximately 20,302 US dollars).[68]
People taking wedding photos by the West Lake
Tourism
Recognised as a National Key Scenic Resort in 1982 and designated a national AAAAA tourist destination in 2006, the West Lake Scenic Area is one of China's most popular tourist attractions and a significant cultural landmark.[69] In 2002, the municipal government removed the park walls, allowing free access to most areas around the lake. This made the West Lake the first major tourist destination to eliminate admission fees, with the aim of boosting the sales of nearby restaurants, hotels, and retail stores.[12]
Each year, the scenic area receive more than 30 million visitors.[70] During public holidays, the West Lake is one of the most crowded scenic spots in China.[71][72][73] During the 2024 National Day holiday, the area recorded 4.426 million visitors over seven days, representing a 30.92% increase compared to the previous year.[14] Following the free-access policy, the income of the scenic area increased substantially, from 29.4 billion yuan in 2002 to 400.5 billion yuan in 2019.[74] This strategic move contributed to the area's economic resilience during the 2008 financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic by reducing dependence on admission fees as a primary source of income.[12]
Agriculture
Historically, the lake needs to strike a balance between aquaculture and irrigation. By the 6th century, the West Lake became an irrigation source, supported by a network of canals aiding rice cultivation. From the 7th century, it provided local residents with fish, aquatic animals (e.g., snails, crabs), and both wild and cultivated plants (e.g., water chestnuts, wild rice shoots), which inspired local cuisine. Absence of intensive management from the government, as seen in the Yuan and Republican era, often led to extensive aquaculture of the lake, while periodic dredging to maintain its irrigation function also temporarily affected habitats and reduced plant food sources. In the 1980s, the annual fish yield peaked at approximately 400 tons but was later reduced to around 250 tons due to regulatory measures aimed at improving water quality.[70]
The Longjing Tea Plantation, situated in the hills west of the West Lake, has been a cornerstone of Chinese tea culture for centuries.[67] Longjing tea, a renowned variety of Chinese green tea, is produced from fresh, non-fermented leaves native to the West Lake area.[75] Before the anti-corruption movement led by Xi Jinping in 2014, Longjing tea was highly valued and often gifted, at times even surpassing the price of gold.[76] In 2019, the core West Lake production area yielded 502.35 tons, generating a revenue of 3.22 billion yuan (approximately 465.57 million US dollars).[77]
Hangzhou cuisine, one of the eight traditional cuisines of China,[78] is renowned for its light, mild flavours with a hint of sweetness.[79] Thanks to its geographical location, which provides access to an abundance of seasonal ingredients, Hangzhou cuisine is divided into two main types: lake cuisine and city cuisine.[79] Historically, these types catered to distinguished officials and the broader population, respectively. Lake cuisine emphasises fish, shrimp, and vegetables, while city cuisine uses more commonly available local meats.[80] Signature dishes made from West Lake's freshwater fish and lotus root include West Lake Fish in Vinegar Gravy and Beggar's Chicken.[79] However, despite its rich tradition, Hangzhou cuisine faces declining popularity among younger generations. This is attributed to limited options that effectively balance price and taste, earning the city a reputation as a "food desert."[81]
Culture
A Trip to Lake Abundant
I've never traveled to Hangzhou's West Lake
But seem to have met it in my dreams someplace:
A vague and indistinct expanse of water and clouds
Where lotus leaves merge with weeping-willow branches.
Huang Zunxian (1848–1905), Translation by Jerry Dean Schmidt[82]
A human-made landscape,[83] the West Lake exemplifies Chinese landscape aesthetics, symbolising harmony between humans and nature as well as the projection of human emotions onto natural scenery. The poetic names create framed views of scenery to be seen from specific locations.[84] The West Lake landscape embodies six key elements inspired by Chinese literature:[3]
Natural hills and waters;
A spatial arrangement with hills on three sides and the city on the fourth;
Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon on the Chinese banknote
For centuries, the West Lake has also been a prominent theme in East Asian landscape painting,[69] even though many painters may have never seen the lake in person.[87] The State Administration of Cultural Heritage (2011) listed more than 500 paintings and calligraphic works that feature the West Lake since the Tang dynasty (618–907),[88] while Japanese paintings of the lake may even outnumber the existing Chinese depictions.[87] In 1928, the National Academy of Art was founded by the West Lake as the country's first higher education institution in art.[89] As a cultural icon of China, it has been featured on Chinese currency, including the one-yuan banknote in the 1979 Bank of ChinaForeign Exchange Certificate[7] and the 2005 Renminbi,[8] as well as in the Chinese passport.[9]
During the 1920s and 1930s, the West Lake was a prominent theme in popular film music. The Cantonese songwriter Lü Wencheng composed the classic Autumn Moon Over the Calm Lake and Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon during his 1930s visit, while Tan Peiyun contributed Listening to Orioles at Willow Waves. These compositions are now considered staples of Cantonese music. The 1959 violin concerto Butterfly Lovers, inspired by the Yue Opera adaptation, remains a celebrated piece in Chinese orchestral repertoire. Between 2004 and 2008, Wang Guoping compiled *The West Lake Series*, which includes the extensive Collection of Documents about the West Lake (30 volumes) and The Complete Library of the West Lake (50 volumes).
The influence of the West Lake extends to film and performance. The 2005 Hong Kong film A West Lake Moment, directed by Yim Ho and Yang Zi. Since 2006, the Hangzhou Art Week has been rebranded as the Spring of West Lake Art Festival. In 2007, director Zhang Yimou launched Impression West Lake, a popular and ongoing lakeside performance. Additionally, the West Lake International Documentary Festival, initiated in 2017, has become a significant event in China's film scene.
Toponymy
The following places are named after or associated with the West Lake:
^"West Lake". Lonely Planet. Archived from the original on 2024-07-26. Retrieved 2024-11-01.
^ ab442.6万人次 同比增长30.92% 国庆假期西湖景区又一次成为“顶流” [4.426 million visitors, up 30.92% year-on-year: West Lake Scenic Area made top attraction again during National Day Holiday]. Hangzhou Daily. 2024-10-08 – via CPC Hangzhou Municipal Committee and Hangzhou Municipal People's Government.
^
Guo, Yemin (2023-09-15). 从山中小县到江南第一州 大运河与杭州的崛起 [From a small county in the mountains to the prime state of Jiangnan: The Grand Canal and the rise of Hangzhou]. National Humanity History (in Simplified Chinese). ISSN2095-5189 – via The Paper.
^Lin, Huadong; Lin, Yingying (2011). 大自然的赐予一一西湖的形成 [Providence of nature: the formation of the West Lake]. 秦汉以前古杭州 [Ancient Hangzhou before Qin and Han dynasties] (in Chinese). Hangzhou: Hangzhou Publishing House. ISBN9787807585138.
^Polo, Marco; da Pisa, Rustichello (2022). "Chapter LXXVI. Description of the Great City of Kinsay, which is the capital of the whole country of Manzi". In Cordier, Henri (ed.). The Travels of Marco Polo. Vol. 2. Translated by Yule, Henry. Project Gutenberg. Archived from the original on 2024-10-09. Retrieved 2024-11-05.
^ abLorge, Peter Allan (2005). "Peace, and the death of Yue Fei". War, politics and society in early modern China, 900-1795. Warfare and history. New-York: Routledge. ISBN978-0-415-31691-0.
^Yu, Xiwen (2024-03-23). 白堤是谁修的？这个问题白居易也曾问过 [Who build the Bai Causeway? Bai Juyi asked the same question]. Dushikuaibao (in Simplified Chinese). Retrieved 2024-11-05.
^ ab"West Lake Scenic Area". Hangzhou Municipal Bureau of Culture, Radio, TV and Tourism. Archived from the original on 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2024-11-02.
^Wang, Jing’ai; Liang, Shunlin; Shi, Peijun (2022), Wang, Jing’ai; Liang, Shunlin; Shi, Peijun (eds.), "Tourism Geography", The Geography of Contemporary China, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 377–440, doi:10.1007/978-3-031-04158-7_14, ISBN978-3-031-04158-7, archived from the original on 2024-02-29, retrieved 2024-11-07
Duan, Xiaolin (2020). The rise of West Lake: a cultural landmark in the Song Dynasty. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN978-0-295-74711-8.
He, Qiliang (2023). The people's West Lake: propaganda, nature, and agency in Mao's China, 1949-1976. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. ISBN978-0-8248-9559-4.
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