Ridesharing company

Yellow Uber car in Moscow

A ridesharing company (or ridehailing service) is a company (or service offered by a company) that, via websites and mobile apps, matches passengers with drivers of vehicles for hire that, unlike taxis, cannot legally be hailed from the street. The vehicles used in ridesharing/ridehailing service are called app-taxis or e-taxis.

Ridesharing companies were founded beginning in the 2010's, after the proliferation of the Internet and mobile apps.^[1] In the 2020s, a few companies began offering rides in self-driving taxis.

The legality of ridesharing companies by jurisdiction varies; in some areas they are considered to be illegal taxi operations, while in other areas, they are subject to regulations that can include requirements for driver background checks, fares, caps on the number of drivers in an area, insurance, licensing, and minimum wage.

Studies have shown that ridesharing companies have created net jobs^[2] and improved the efficiency of drivers of vehicles for hire due to advanced algorithms that pair riders with drivers.^[3] They have been subject to perennial criticism for seeking to classify drivers as independent contractors, enabling them to withhold worker protections that they would have been required to provide to employees.^[4][5] Studies have shown that especially in cities where it competes with public transport, ridesharing contributes to traffic congestion, reduces public transport use, has no substantial impact on vehicle ownership, and increases automobile dependency.^[6][7][8]

Terminology: ridesharing vs. ridehailing

Although the term "ridesharing" is used by many international news sources,^[9] in January 2015, the Associated Press Stylebook, the authority that sets many of the news industry's grammar and word use standards, officially adopted the term "ride-hailing" to describe the services offered by these companies, claiming that "ridesharing" doesn't accurately describe the services since not all rides are shared, and "ride-sourcing" only is accurate when drivers provide rides for income. While the Associated Press recommended the use of "ride-hailing" as a term, it noted that, unlike taxis, ridesharing companies cannot pick up street hails.^[10][9]

The term "ride-sharing" has also been defined to refer to on-demand carpooling or shared transport, whereas "ride-hailing" has been defined as the hiring of a private driver for personal transportation.^[11]

History

Carpooling was popular in the mid-1970s due to the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis. The first employee carpools/vanpools were organized then at Chrysler and 3M.^[12]

In the 1990s, carpooling was popular among college students, where campuses have limited parking space. The feasibility of further development of carpooling was investigated although the comprehensive technologies were not commercially available yet at the time.^[13][14]

Ridesharing programs began migrating to the Internet in the late 1990s.^[14]

A 2006 report by the Federal Transit Administration stated that "next day" responsiveness has been achieved but that "dynamic" ridematching has not yet been successfully implemented.^[15]

In 2009, Uber was founded as Ubercab by Garrett Camp, a computer programmer and the co-founder of StumbleUpon, and Travis Kalanick, who sold his Red Swoosh startup for $19 million in 2007.^[16][17]

In 2011, Sidecar launched; its founder Sunil Paul patented the idea of hailing a ride via mobile app in 2002.^[18]

Lyft was launched in the summer of 2012 by computer programmers Logan Green and John Zimmer as a service of Zimride, an intercity carpooling company they founded in 2007.^[19]

Careem began operations in July 2012.^[20]

Bolt, a mobility company operating in Europe and Africa, was founded in 2013.^[21]

In 2013, California became the first state to regulate such companies; they are regulated as public utilities by the California Public Utilities Commission and the legal term used is "Transportation Network Company" (TNC).^[22]

In the 2020s, a few companies such as Waymo began offering rides in robotaxis. Many pilot cities complained of vehicles blocking normal traffic flow and interfering with emergency services.^[23]

BlackWolf began in May 2023 in Atlanta, Georgia after security contractor Kerry KingBrown heard a woman claim she had been a victim of sex trafficking. He felt the need to focus on safety, and he created the service with the option of armed drivers. The company's web site says only those with military or law enforcemenmt experience can be hired as drivers, and their vehicles must meet requirements. BlackWolf expanded into cities in Florida, Tennessee and Arizona. By November 2024, over 300,000 were using the service. Expansion into Texas is planned for 2025, because BlackWolf "identified a significant increase in human trafficking" there.^[24]

Criticism

See also: Sharing economy § Criticism, and Temporary work § Legal issues

Airports in California, such as the San Francisco International Airport, regulate where TNC (Transportation Network Companies - the legal term for rideshare companies in California) vehicles may pick up, drop off, or wait for passengers.

Criticism from taxi companies and taxi drivers

Values of taxi medallions, transferable permits or licenses authorizing the holder to pick up passengers for hire, have declined in value significantly. In 2018, this led to failures by credit unions that lent money secured by taxi medallions^[25] and suicides by taxi drivers.^[26][27]

Legal cases by taxi companies and taxi drivers

No lawsuit against Uber in which the plaintiffs were taxi companies has ended with a judgment in favor of the taxis. The only case that proceeded to trial, Anoush Cab, Inc. v. Uber Technologies, Inc., No. 19-2001 (1st Cir. 2021), which alleged that Uber caused asset devaluation by competing unfairly, resulted in a full verdict for Uber.^[28]

Flywheel, the largest operator of taxis in San Francisco, sued Uber in 2016, alleging antitrust violations and predatory pricing.^[29] In 2021, a federal judge threw out the bulk of the case and Uber settled the remainder of the case by integrating Flywheel taxis into its mobile app.^[30]

In 2019, 8,000 taxi drivers, represented by law firm Maurice Blackburn, filed a class action lawsuit against Uber in Australia alleging illegal taxi operations, loss of income and loss of value of taxi and/or hire car licences. Uber agreed to settle the case by paying AU$271.8 million.^[31]

Legal cases by drivers

Driver classification under employment law

Unless otherwise required by law, ridesharing companies have classified drivers as independent contractors and not employees under employment law, arguing that they receive flextime not generally received by employees. This classification has been challenged legally since it affects taxation, minimum wage requirements, working time, paid time off, employee benefits, unemployment benefits, and overtime benefits.^[4]

Jurisdictions in which drivers must receive the classification of "employees" include the United Kingdom (after the case of Aslam v Uber BV which was decided by the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom),^[32][33] Switzerland,^[34] New Jersey,^[35] and the Netherlands.^[36][37] California Assembly Bill 5 (2019) was passed to force drivers to be classified as employees in California, although ridesharing companies received an exemption by 2020 California Proposition 22, a ballot initiative.^[5] Ridesharing companies spent tens of millions of dollars on the campaign.^[38][39]

In some jurisdictions, laws were passed to guarantee drivers a minimum wage before and after expenses as well as paid time off and insurance benefits.^[40][41] Uber has paid to settle accusations of having misled drivers about potential earnings^[42][43][44] and shortchanging drivers.^{[45][46][47][48]}

Price fixing allegations

In the United States, drivers do not have any control over the fares they charge. A lawsuit filed in California, Gill et al. v. Uber Technologies, Inc. et al., alleged that this is a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. The lawsuit was denied class action status; a judge forced each plaintiff to go to arbitration individually. The case was dropped in March 2024.^[49][50]

Safety issues

Crimes have been committed by rideshare drivers^[51] as well as by individuals posing as rideshare drivers who lure unsuspecting passengers to their vehicles by placing an emblem on their car or by claiming to be a passenger's expected driver.^[52] The latter led to the murder of Samantha Josephson and the introduction of Sami’s Law. Ridesharing companies have been accused of not taking necessary measures to prevent sexual assault.^[53][54] They have been fined by government agencies for violations in their background check processes.^[55][56][57]

Ridesharing has also been criticized for encouraging or requiring phone use while driving. To accept a fare, some apps require drivers to tap their phone screen, usually within 15 seconds after receiving a notification, which is illegal in some jurisdictions since it could result in distracted driving.^[58]

Ridesharing vehicles in many cities routinely obstruct bicycle lanes while picking up or dropping off passengers, a practice that endangers cyclists.^[59][60][61]

Insufficient accessibility

Ridesharing has been criticized for providing inadequate accessibility measures for disabled people, in violation of local laws.

In some areas, vehicle for hire companies are required by law to have a certain amount of wheelchair accessible vans (WAVs) in use. However, most drivers do not own a WAV, making it hard to comply with the laws.^[62]

While ridesharing companies require drivers to transport service animals, drivers have been criticized for refusal to transport service animals, which, in the United States, is in violation of the Americans with Disabilities Act. In 2021, an arbitrator awarded $1.1 million to a visually impaired passenger who travels with a guide dog because she was denied rides 14 separate times.^[63]

Driver bias against passengers in certain demographic groups

Several audit studies of ridehailing companies have been conducted by researchers around the U.S. While these studies do find evidence that ridehailing drivers discriminate against riders on the basis of race (and in one of the studies, alliance with LGBT groups), two of the studies which also examined taxis found suggestive evidence that rates of discrimination by taxi drivers are significantly higher than by ridehailing drivers.^[64][65] The two studies that compare rates of discrimination in ridehailing services to taxis include an audit study set in Los Angeles in 2017 and another in Boston in late 2015 to 2016.

In the study set in Los Angeles, the author had participants of different races request rides from Uber, Lyft, and taxis. She found that Black riders were 73% (11 percentage points) more likely to have a taxi driver cancel on them than White riders. On the other hand, she found that Black riders were only 4 percentage points more likely to be cancelled on by an Uber driver than White riders (there was no statistically significant difference in likelihood for Lyft).^[65]

The Boston study notes that, at least at the time that the study was conducted, Lyft drivers were able to see all information in a rider's profile (including their uploaded photo and name) when reviewing a ride request; on the other hand, Uber drivers were only able to see a rider's name (and not their picture) after accepting a ride request. Thus, in the Boston study, riders were assigned distinctly "African American sounding names" and "white sounding names" to use when requesting a ride from both Uber and Lyft. Uber's setup of not allowing drivers to see rider's names till after a ride was accepted meant that the authors could quantify rates of discrimination by keeping track of how often riders assigned white sounding names were cancelled on compared to those assigned African American sounding names. In the end, the authors found that the riders assigned African American sounding names were more than twice as likely to get cancelled on as those assigned White sounding names. Despite this large disparity across the two groups, the authors found that there was no statistically significant difference in how long each group had to wait for a driver to arrive.^[64]

In 2024, a study by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University was published that focused on explaining why African American and White riders could experience such different cancellation rates but very similar wait times. Using an agent-based model developed to simulate real Uber and Lyft trips that have occurred in the city of Chicago, they found that the rapid rematching speed of Uber and Lyft drivers after a cancellation drastically reduces the effect of that cancellation on a rider's wait time. However, the paper also found that ridehailing services were not able to overcome the effects of racial residential segregation in Chicago (one of the most racially residentially segregated cities in the country^[66]); even when no drivers were cancelling on riders because of their race, the authors found that Black riders were waiting around 50% longer on average than White riders.^[67]

In addition to the studies discussed in detail above, a 2018 study in Washington, D.C. found that drivers cancelled ride requests from African Americans and LGBT and straight ally passengers (indicated by a rainbow flag) more often, but cancelled at the same rate for women and men. The higher cancellation rate for African American passengers was somewhat attenuated at peak times, when financial incentives were higher.^[68][69]

Traffic congestion

Studies have shown that especially in cities where it competes with public transport, ridesharing contributes to traffic congestion, reduces public transport use, has no substantial impact on vehicle ownership, and increases automobile dependency.^{[6][70][8][7]}

Dead mileage specifically causes unnecessary carbon emissions and traffic congestion.^[71] A study published in September 2019 found that taxis had lower rider waiting time and vehicle empty driving time, and thus contribute less to congestion and pollution in downtown areas.^[72] However, a 2018 report noted that ridesharing complements public transit.^[73] A study published in July 2018 found that Uber and Lyft are creating more traffic and congestion.^[74][75][76] A study published in March 2016 found that in Los Angeles and Seattle the passenger occupancy for Uber services is higher than that of taxi services, and concluded that Uber rides reduce congestion on the premise that they replace taxi rides.^[77] Studies citing data from 2010 to 2019 found that Uber rides are made in addition to taxi rides, and replace walking, bike rides, and bus rides, in addition to the Uber vehicles having a low average occupancy rate, all of which increases congestion. A 2021 study found that shifting private vehicle travel to ridehailing services can reduce air pollution costs, on average, but the increased costs from crash risk, congestion, climate change and noise outweigh these benefits.^[78] This increase in congestion has led some cities to levy taxes on rides taken with ridesharing companies.^[79] Another study shows that the surge factor pricing mechanism used for ridehailing services are informative for predicting taxi bookings as well, and that taxis incorporating this relative price can improve allocative efficiency and demand prediction.^[80]

A study published in July 2017 indicated that the increase in traffic caused by Uber generates collective costs in lost time in congestion, increased pollution, and increased accident risks that can exceed the economy and revenue generated by the service, indicating that, in certain conditions, Uber might have a social cost that is greater than its benefits.^[81]

See also

• Carpool
• Carsharing, which allows consumer to access automobiles for self-driven journeys
• Demand-responsive transport
• Flexible carpooling
• Hitchhiking and slugging, also known as casual carpooling
• Illegal taxi operation
• Mobility as a service
• Peer-to-peer carsharing, where customers drive themselves in cars rented from individual owners
• Rideshare advertising
• Ride sharing privacy
• Sharing economy
• Sustainable transport
• Spaceflight, Inc. - rocket rideshare service
• Vanpool

References

1. Chan, Nelson D.; Shaheen, Susan A. (November 4, 2011). "Ridesharing in North America: Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 4, 2014.
2. Gaskell, Adi (January 26, 2017). "Study Explores The Impact Of Uber On The Taxi Industry". Forbes. Archived from the original on April 19, 2022.
3. Cramer, Judd; Krueger, Alan B. (May 2016). "Disruptive Change in the Taxi Business: The Case of Uber". American Economic Review. 106 (5). doi:10.3386/w22083.
4. Sainato, Michael (August 27, 2021). "'I don't like being treated like crap': gig workers aim to retool a system they say is rigged". The Guardian. Archived from the original on October 31, 2021.
5. Luna, Taryn (November 4, 2020). "California voters approve Prop. 22, allowing Uber and Lyft drivers to remain independent contractors". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 4, 2021.
6. Wolfe, Sean (July 27, 2018). "Uber and Lyft are creating more traffic and congestion instead of reducing it, according to a new report". Business Insider. Archived from the original on October 19, 2020. Retrieved December 17, 2018.
7. Eliot Brown (February 15, 2020). "The Ride-Hail Utopia That Got Stuck in Traffic". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on October 26, 2021. Retrieved October 30, 2021.
8. Andrew J. Hawkins (August 6, 2019). "Uber and Lyft finally admit they're making traffic congestion worse in cities". The Verge. Archived from the original on October 27, 2021. Retrieved October 30, 2021.
9. Freed, Benjamin (June 30, 2015). "Why You Shouldn't Call Uber and Lyft "Ride-Sharing"". Washingtonian. Archived from the original on December 17, 2018. Retrieved December 17, 2018.
10. Warzel, Charlie (January 8, 2015). "Let's All Join The AP Stylebook In Killing The Term 'Ride-Sharing'". BuzzFeed. Archived from the original on November 18, 2018. Retrieved December 16, 2018.
11. "Ride-Hailing vs. Ride-Sharing: The Difference Explained". Via Transportation. June 7, 2021.
12. Oliphant, Marc; Amey, Andrew (2010). "Dynamic Ridesharing: Carpooling Meets the Information Age" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on August 30, 2017. Retrieved September 17, 2021.
13. Ferguson, Erik (1997). "The rise and fall of the American carpool: 1970–1990". Transportation. 24 (4): 349–376. doi:10.1023/A:1004928012320. S2CID 153058381. Archived from the original on November 6, 2021. Retrieved October 31, 2021.
14. Chan, Nelson D.; Shaheen, Susan A. (November 4, 2011). "Ridesharing in North America: Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). University of California, Berkeley. Archived (PDF) from the original on February 4, 2014.
15. "ADVANCED PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS: THE STATE OF THE ART UPDATE 2006" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on September 23, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
16. Scott, Alec (November 19, 2015). "Co-founding Uber made Calgary-born Garrett Camp a billionaire". Canadian Business. Archived from the original on October 21, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
17. Shontell, Alyson (January 11, 2014). "All Hail the Uber Man! How Sharp-Elbowed Salesman Travis Kalanick Became Silicon Valley's Newest Star". Business Insider. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved October 24, 2021.
18. Said, Carolyn (December 29, 2015). "Ride-sharing pioneer Sidecar to shut down ride, delivery service". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on June 8, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
19. Farr, Christina (May 23, 2013). "Lyft team gets $60M more; now it must prove ride-sharing can go global". [entureBeat. Archived from the original on July 27, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
20. Bashir, Omer (February 15, 2016). "Uber-clone vows safe, affordable ride. Should you Careem around Karachi, Lahore?". Dawn.com. Archived from the original on August 9, 2020. Retrieved April 26, 2020.
21. "Request a ride, 24/7". Bolt. Retrieved June 20, 2023.
22. Ha, Anthony (September 19, 2013). "California Regulator Passes First Ridesharing Rules, A Big Win For Lyft, SideCar, And Uber". TechCrunch. The California Public Utilities Commission has unanimously approved new regulations around ridesharing services such as Lyft, SideCar and UberX ... According to a press release from the CPUC, the new regulations establish a new category of business called a Transportation Network Company, and it requires those companies to...
23. Lu, Yiwen (November 20, 2023). "'Lost Time for No Reason': How Driverless Taxis Are Stressing Cities". The New York Times. Retrieved March 17, 2024.
24. Cross, Greta (November 16, 2024). "Like Uber, but with guns: New rideshare with armed drivers is coming to 3 Texas cities". USA Today.
25. Ghosh, Palash (October 1, 2018). "Taxi medallion losses drive another credit union out of business". American Banker.
26. Fitzsimmons, Emma G. (December 2, 2018). "Why Are Taxi Drivers in New York Killing Themselves?". The New York Times.
27. Siemaszko, Corky (June 7, 2018). "In the shadow of Uber's rise, taxi driver suicides leave cabbies shaken". NBC News.
28. "Anoush Cab, Inc. v. Uber Technologies, Inc., No. 19-2001 (1st Cir. 2021)". Justia. 2021.
29. Dickey, Megan Rose (November 2, 2016). "San Francisco taxi company sues Uber for "predatory pricing tactics"". TechCrunch.
30. Leonard, Mike (December 13, 2021). "Uber Resolves San Francisco Cab Company's Predatory Pricing Suit". Bloomberg Law.
31. "Uber class action". Maurice Blackburn.
32. Thompson, Rachel (February 19, 2021). "Uber loses its final appeal in UK Supreme Court in landmark ruling". Mashable. Archived from the original on February 19, 2021.
33. Korosec, Kirsten; Lomas, Natasha (March 17, 2021). "Uber says it will treat UK drivers as workers in wake of Supreme Court ruling". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on April 8, 2021.
34. "Swiss authorities say Uber drivers should be treated as 'employees'". Swissinfo. March 19, 2018. Archived from the original on October 11, 2020.
35. "Uber has to pay New Jersey nearly $650 million in employment taxes". Engadget. November 14, 2019. Archived from the original on January 16, 2021.
36. Lomas, Natasha (September 13, 2021). "Dutch court finds Uber drivers are employees". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on October 31, 2021.
37. Keane, Jonathan (September 13, 2021). "Uber Hit By Dutch Ruling That Deems Drivers Employees". Forbes. Archived from the original on October 31, 2021.
38. HILTZIK, MICHAEL (September 8, 2020). "Column: Uber and Lyft just made their campaign to keep exploiting workers the costliest in history". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on November 4, 2020.
39. "Late Contribution Report". Secretary of State of California. Archived from the original on September 12, 2020.
40. "AG CAMPBELL REACHES NATION-LEADING SETTLEMENT WITH UBER AND LYFT, SECURES LANDMARK WAGES, BENEFITS AND PROTECTIONS FOR DRIVERS" (Press release). Massachusetts Attorney General. June 27, 2024.
41. Ongweso Jr., Edward (January 21, 2021). "New Study Finds Chicago Uber and Lyft Drivers Are Paid Below Minimum Wage". Vice. Archived from the original on October 30, 2021.
42. Bartz, Diane (January 19, 2017). "Uber to pay $20 million to settle U.S. claims it misled drivers". Reuters. Archived from the original on December 15, 2018.
43. Carson, Biz (January 20, 2017). "Uber to pay $20 million to FTC to settle claims that it exaggerated how much drivers could make". Business Insider. Archived from the original on January 20, 2017.
44. Huet, Ellen (January 19, 2017). "Uber to Pay $20 Million to Settle FTC Suit Over Driver Pay". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on January 20, 2017.
45. Wong, Julia Carrie (May 23, 2017). "Uber admits underpaying New York City drivers by millions of dollars". The Guardian. Archived from the original on January 9, 2019.
46. Lien, Tracey (February 19, 2018). "Uber class-action lawsuit over how drivers were paid gets green light from judge". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on January 13, 2019.
47. "Uber drivers who sued over pay will get at least $20 each after". Los Angeles Times. July 23, 2019. Archived from the original on October 20, 2021.
48. CHRISTOPHI, HELEN (September 27, 2018). "Judge Gives Preliminary Approval to Uber Class Action Settlement". Courthouse News Service. Archived from the original on October 19, 2021.
49. "Gill et al v. Uber Technologies, Inc. et al". PacerMonitor. Archived from the original on February 27, 2023. Retrieved February 27, 2023.
50. Scarcella, Mike (March 15, 2024). "Uber, Lyft drivers drop price-fixing lawsuit in California". Reuters.
51. Hook, Leslie; Solomon, Erika; Ram, Aliya (December 19, 2017). "Beirut killing reignites concerns about Uber safety". Financial Times. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
52. Healy, Jack (April 4, 2019). "They Thought It Was Their Uber. But the Driver Was a Predator". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 21, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
53. Holmes, Aaron (October 25, 2019). "More than 30 women are suing Lyft, saying the company didn't do enough to protect them from sexual assault and kidnapping". Business Insider. Archived from the original on August 3, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
54. Kerr, Dara (October 24, 2019). "Lyft is fostering a sexual assault 'epidemic,' victims say". CNET. Archived from the original on November 12, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
55. Yurieff, Kaya (November 20, 2017). "Uber fined $8.9 million in Colorado for problematic background checks". CNN. Archived from the original on November 11, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
56. "Lyft fined after hiring driver with felony convictions". KKTV. January 13, 2018. Archived from the original on October 26, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
57. Spielman, Fran (February 6, 2020). "Aldermen crack down on ride-hailing safety". Chicago Sun Times. Archived from the original on March 11, 2020. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
58. Jacks, Timna (January 11, 2019). "Uber drivers complain they are forced to break the law to do their job.So that means that the drivers put the passenger in danger to which is against the law". Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved January 13, 2019.
59. Annear, Steve (March 1, 2019). "'Fed up' cyclists send letter to Uber, Lyft asking drivers to stop obstructing bike lanes". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
60. Fitzsimmons, Emma G. (March 10, 2020). "More Pedestrians and Cyclists are Dying in N.Y.C. Drivers are Often to Blame". The New York Times. Archived from the original on December 24, 2020. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
61. Lipson, Vivian (August 5, 2019). "It's Not Your Imagination: Uber and Lyft Drivers Almost Always Park in Bike Lanes". Streetsblog. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
62. Said, Carolyn (February 27, 2018). "Uber does not have enough wheelchair-accessible vehicles, new lawsuit says". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on November 9, 2020. Retrieved April 25, 2018.
63. Sonnemaker, Tyler (April 2, 2021). "Uber ordered to pay $1.1 million to blind passenger who was denied rides 14 separate times". Business Insider.
64. Ge, Yanbo; Knittel, Christopher R.; MacKenzie, Don; Zoepf, Stephen (October 1, 2020). "Racial discrimination in transportation network companies". Journal of Public Economics. 190: 104205. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104205. hdl:1721.1/130158. ISSN 0047-2727.
65. Brown, Anne E. (June 1, 2023). "Prevalence and Mechanisms of Discrimination: Evidence from the Ride-Hail and Taxi Industries". Journal of Planning Education and Research. 43 (2): 268–280. doi:10.1177/0739456X19871687. ISSN 0739-456X.
66. "Most to Least Segregated Cities | Othering & Belonging Institute". belonging.berkeley.edu. Retrieved December 19, 2024.
67. Cobb, Anna; Mohan, Aniruddh; Harper, Corey D.; Nock, Destenie; Michalek, Jeremy (October 8, 2024). "Ride-hailing technology mitigates effects of driver racial discrimination, but effects of residential segregation persist". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 121 (41): e2408936121. doi:10.1073/pnas.2408936121. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 11474100. PMID 39348538.
68. Mejia, Jorge; Parker, Chris (January 2021). "When Transparency Fails: Bias and Financial Incentives in Ridesharing Platforms" (PDF). Management Science. 67 (1): 166–184. doi:10.1287/mnsc.2019.3525. S2CID 218928567.
69. BARMANN, JAY C. (September 27, 2019). "Study Finds That Black and LGBTQ People Still Have Rideshare Drivers Cancel On Them More Often". Gothamist. Archived from the original on October 31, 2021. Retrieved October 31, 2021.
70. Transport for London (2019). "Travel in London Report 12". p. 116. Archived from the original on October 27, 2021. Retrieved October 30, 2021.
71. Song, Victoria (April 26, 2021). "Rideshares Are Increasing Traffic Jams and Making Them Longer, Study Finds". Gizmodo. Archived from the original on October 30, 2021. Retrieved October 30, 2021.
72. Zhang, Ruda; Ghanem, Roger (September 27, 2019). "Demand, Supply, and Performance of Street-Hail Taxi". IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems. 21 (10): 4123–4132. arXiv:1909.12861. Bibcode:2019arXiv190912861Z. doi:10.1109/TITS.2019.2938762. S2CID 203593159.
73. Hall, Jonathan D.; Palsson, Craig; Price, Joseph (November 1, 2018). "Is Uber a substitute or complement for public transit?" (PDF). Journal of Urban Economics. 108: 36–50. doi:10.1016/j.jue.2018.09.003. ISSN 0094-1190. S2CID 31480082. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 30, 2019. Retrieved August 15, 2020.
74. Wolfe, Sean (July 27, 2018), Uber and Lyft are creating more traffic and congestion instead of reducing it, according to a new report, Business Insider, archived from the original on October 19, 2020, retrieved December 17, 2018
75. Transport for London (2019), Travel in London Report 12, p. 116, archived from the original on October 27, 2021, retrieved October 30, 2021
76. Hawkins, Andrew J. (August 6, 2019), Uber and Lyft finally admit they're making traffic congestion worse in cities, The Verge, archived from the original on October 27, 2021, retrieved October 30, 2021
77. Cramer, Judd (March 2016), "Disruptive Change in the Taxi Business: The Case of Uber", National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper Series 22083, doi:10.3386/w22083
78. Jacob Ward, Jeremy Michalek and Constantine Samaras (September 20, 2021), "Air Pollution, Greenhouse Gas, and Traffic Externality Benefits and Costs of Shifting Private Vehicle Travel to Ridesourcing Services", Environmental Science and Technology, 55 (19): 13174–13185, doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c01641
79. Eliot Brown (February 15, 2020), The Ride-Hail Utopia That Got Stuck in Traffic, Wall Street Journal, archived from the original on October 26, 2021, retrieved October 30, 2021
80. Agarwal, Sumit; Charoenwong, Ben; Cheng, Shih-Fen; Keppo, Jussi (March 2022). "The impact of ride-hail surge factors on taxi bookings". Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies. 136 (March). doi:10.1016/j.trc.2021.103508. SSRN 3157378.
81. Pinheiro, Rafael Lemieszek (2017). "Intelligence is Open: Smart City versus Open City". PlaNext – Next Generation Planning. 4: 8–26. doi:10.24306/plnxt.2017.04.002. Archived from the original on May 21, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2022.