Japanese pronouns

Japanese pronouns (代名詞, daimeishi) are words in the Japanese language used to address or refer to present people or things, where present means people or things that can be pointed at. The position of things (far away, nearby) and their role in the current interaction (goods, addresser, addressee, bystander) are features of the meaning of those words. The use of pronouns, especially when referring to oneself and speaking in the first person, vary between gender, formality, dialect and region where Japanese is spoken.

According to some Western grammarians, pronouns are not a distinct part of speech in Japanese, but a subclass of nouns, since they behave grammatically just like nouns.[1][2][3][4] Among Japanese grammarians, whether nouns should be considered a distinct part of speech (品詞, hinshi) has varied.[5] Some considered them distinct,[6][a][7][b][8][c] others thought they were only nouns.[9][d][10][e] The gakkō bunpō (学校文法, lit. 'school grammar') of today has followed Iwabuchi Etsutarō's model,[11] which does not recognize pronouns as a distinct part of speech, but merely a subclass of nouns (see Japanese grammar § Different classifications).

Use and etymology

In contrast to present people and things, absent people and things can be referred to by naming; for example, by instantiating a class, "the house" (in a context where there is only one house) and presenting things in relation to the present, named and sui generis people or things can be "I'm going home", "I'm going to Hayao's place", "I'm going to the mayor's place", "I'm going to my mother's place" or "I'm going to my mother's friend's place". Functionally, deictic classifiers not only indicate that the referenced person or thing has a spatial position or an interactional role but also classify it to some extent. In addition, Japanese pronouns are restricted by a situation type (register): who is talking to whom about what and through which medium (spoken or written, staged or in private). In that sense, when a male is talking to his male friends, the pronoun set that is available to him is different from those available when a man of the same age talks to his wife and, vice versa, when a woman talks to her husband. These variations in pronoun availability are determined by the register.

In linguistics, generativists and other structuralists suggest that the Japanese language does not have pronouns as such, since, unlike pronouns in most other languages that have them, these words are syntactically and morphologically identical to nouns.[12][13] As functionalists point out, however, these words function as personal references, demonstratives, and reflexives, just as pronouns do in other languages.[14][15]

Japanese has a large number of pronouns, differing in use by formality, gender, age, and relative social status of speaker and audience. Further, pronouns are an open class, with existing nouns being used as new pronouns with some frequency. This is ongoing; a recent example is jibun (自分, self), which is now used by some young men as a casual first-person pronoun.

Pronouns are used less frequently in the Japanese language than in many other languages,[16] mainly because there is no grammatical requirement to include the subject in a sentence. That means that pronouns can seldom be translated from English to Japanese on a one-to-one basis.

The common English personal pronouns, such as "I", "you", and "they", have no other meanings or connotations. However, most Japanese personal pronouns do. Consider for example two words corresponding to the English pronoun "I": 私 (watashi) also means "private" or "personal". 僕 (boku) carries a masculine impression; it is typically used by males, especially those in their youth.[17]

Japanese words that refer to other people are part of the encompassing system of honorific speech and should be understood within that context. Pronoun choice depends on the speaker's social status (as compared to the listener's) as well as the sentence's subjects and objects.

The first-person pronouns (e.g., watashi, 私) and second-person pronouns (e.g., anata, 貴方) are used in formal contexts (however the latter can be considered rude). In many sentences, pronouns that mean "I" and "you" are omitted in Japanese when the meaning is still clear.[14]

When it is required to state the topic of the sentence for clarity, the particle wa (は) is used, but it is not required when the topic can be inferred from context. Also, there are frequently used verbs that imply the subject and/or indirect object of the sentence in certain contexts: kureru (くれる) means "give" in the sense that "somebody other than me gives something to me or to somebody very close to me." Ageru (あげる) also means "give", but in the sense that "someone gives something to someone other than me." This often makes pronouns unnecessary, as they can be inferred from context.

In Japanese, a speaker may only directly express their own emotions, as they cannot know the true mental state of anyone else.[citation needed] Thus, in sentences comprising a single adjective (often those ending in -shii), it is often assumed that the speaker is the subject. For example, the adjective sabishii (寂しい) can represent a complete sentence that means "I am lonely." When speaking of another person's feelings or emotions, sabishisō (寂しそう) "seems lonely" would be used instead. Similarly, neko ga hoshii (猫が欲しい) "I want a cat," as opposed to neko wo hoshigatte iru (猫を欲しがっている) "seems to want a cat," when referring to others.[18] Thus, the first-person pronoun is usually not used unless the speaker wants to put a special stress on the fact that they are referring to themselves or if it is necessary to make it clear.

In some contexts, it may be considered uncouth to refer to the listener (second person) by a pronoun. If it is required to state the second person, the listener's surname, suffixed with -san or some other title (like "customer", "teacher", or "boss"), is generally used.

Gender differences in spoken Japanese also create another challenge, as men and women refer to themselves with different pronouns. Social standing also determines how people refer to themselves, as well as how they refer to other people.

Japanese first-person pronouns by speakers and situations according to Yuko Saegusa, Concerning the First Personal Pronoun of Native Japanese Speakers (2009)

First-person pronouns by elementary school pupils (2008)
Speaker Situation 1 2 3
Female To friends uchi 49% First name 26% atashi 15%
In the family First name 33% atashi 29% uchi 23%
In a class watashi 86% atashi 7% uchi 6%
To an unknown visitor watashi 75% atashi, first name, uchi 8% each
To the class teacher watashi 66% First name 13% atashi 9%
Male To friends ore 72% boku 19% First name 4%
In the family ore 62% boku 23% uchi 6%
In a class boku 85% ore 13% First name, nickname 1% each
To an unknown visitor boku 64% ore 26% First name 4%
To the class teacher boku 67% ore 27% First name 3%
First-person pronouns by university students (2009)
Speaker Situation 1 2 3
Female To friends uchi 39% atashi 30% watashi 22%
In the family atashi 28% First name 27% uchi 18%
In a class watashi 89% atashi 7% jibun 3%
To an unknown visitor watashi 81% atashi 10% jibun 6%
To the class teacher watashi 77% atashi 17% jibun 7%
Male To friends ore 87% uchi 4% watashi, jibun 2% each
In the family ore 88% boku, jibun 5% each
In a class watashi 48% jibun 28% boku 22%
To an unknown visitor boku 36% jibun 29% watashi 22%
To the class teacher jibun 38% boku 29% watashi 22%

List of Japanese personal pronouns

The list is incomplete, as there are numerous Japanese pronoun forms, which vary by region and dialect. This is a list of the most commonly used forms. "It" has no direct equivalent in Japanese[14] (though in some contexts the demonstrative pronoun それ (sore) is translatable as "it"). Also, Japanese does not generally inflect by case, so, I is equivalent to me.

Romaji Hiragana Kanji Level of speech Gender Notes
– I/me –
watashi わたし 私 formal/informal both In formal or polite contexts, this is gender neutral; in casual speech, it is typically only used by women. Use by men in casual contexts may be perceived as stiff.
watakushi わたくし 私 very formal both The most formal personal pronoun. Outdated curriculums did not provide for any other kind of pronoun in everyday speech for foreigners, except for watakushi.[19] However, in modern student books, such a pronoun has been withdrawn from use.[20]
ware われ 我, 吾 very formal both Used in literary style writing. Also used as rude second person in western dialects.
waga わが 我が very formal both Means "my" or "our". Used in speeches and formalities; 我が社 waga-sha (our company) or 我が国 waga-kuni (our country).
ore おれ 俺 informal males Frequently used by men.[21] Establishes a sense of "masculinity". Can be seen as rude depending on the context. Emphasises one's own status when used with peers and with those who are younger or of lesser status. Among close friends or family, its use conveys familiarity rather than "masculinity" or superiority. It was used also by women until the late Edo period and still is in some dialects. Also oi in Kyushu dialect.
boku ぼく 僕 formal/informal males Used by males of all ages; very often used by boys; can be used by females but then carries tomboyish or feminist connotations. Perceived as humble, but can also carry an undertone of "feeling young" when used by males of older age. Also used when casually giving deference; "servant" uses the same kanji (僕 shimobe). Can also be used as a second-person pronoun toward male children (English equivalent – "kid" or "squirt").
washi わし 儂 formal/informal mainly males Often used in western dialects and fictional settings to stereotypically represent characters of old age. Also wai, a slang version of washi in the Kansai dialect.
jibun じぶん 自分 neutral mainly males Literally "oneself"; used as either reflexive or personal pronoun. Can convey a sense of distance when used in the latter way. Also used as casual second person pronoun in the Kansai dialect.
ore-sama おれさま 俺様 informal mainly (fictional) males "My esteemed self", "Mr. I". Used in fiction by very self-important or arrogant characters,[22] or humorously.
atai あたい 私 very informal females Slang version of あたし atashi.[23]
atashi あたし 私 informal females (but see notes) A feminine pronoun that strains from わたし ("watashi"). Rarely used in written language, but common in conversation, especially among younger women. It was formerly used by male members of the merchant and artisan classes in the Edo area and continues to be used by male rakugo performers.
atakushi あたくし 私 informal females A feminine pronoun that strains from わたくし ("watakushi").
uchi うち 家, 内 informal mostly females Means "one's own". Often used in western dialects especially the Kansai dialect. Generally written in kana. Plural form uchi-ra is used by both genders. Singular form is also used by both sexes when talking about the household, e.g., "uchi no neko" ("my/our cat"), "uchi no chichi-oya" ("my father"); also used in less formal business speech to mean "our company", e.g., "uchi wa sandai no rekkāsha ga aru" ("we (our company) have three tow-trucks").
(own name) informal both Used by small children and young women; considered cute and childish.
oira おいら 俺等, 己等 informal males Similar to 俺 ore, but more casual. Evokes a person with a rural background, a "country bumpkin".
ora おら 俺等 informal both Dialect in Kanto and further north. Similar to おいら oira, but more rural. Also ura in some dialects.
wate わて informal both Dated Kansai dialect. Also ate (somewhat feminine).
shōsei しょうせい 小生 formal, written males Used among academic colleagues. Lit. "your pupil".[24]
– you (singular) –
(name and honorific) formality depends on the honorific used both
anata あなた 貴方, 貴男, 貴女 formal/informal both The kanji are very rarely used. The only second person pronoun comparable to English "you", yet still not used as often in this universal way by native speakers, as it can be considered having a condescending undertone, especially towards superiors.[14][21][better source needed] For expressing "you" in formal contexts, using the person's name with an honorific is more typical. More commonly, anata may be used when having no information about the addressed person; also often used as "you" in commercials, when not referring to a particular person. Furthermore, commonly used by women to address their husband or lover, in a way roughly equivalent to the English "dear".
anta あんた 貴方 informal both Contraction of あなた anata.[23] Can express contempt, anger or familiarity towards a person. Generally seen as rude or uneducated when used in formal contexts.
otaku おたく お宅, 御宅 formal, polite both A polite way of saying "your house", also used as a pronoun to address a person with slight sense of distance. Otaku/otakki/ota turned into a slang term referring to a type of geek/obsessive hobbyist, as they often addressed each other as otaku.
omae おまえ お前 very informal both Similar to anta, but used by men with more frequency.[21] Expresses the speaker's higher status or age, or a very casual relationship among peers. Often used with おれ ore.[21] Very rude if said to elders. Commonly used by men to address their wife or lover, paralleling the female use of "anata".
temē, temae てめえ,
てまえ 		手前 rude and confrontational[23] mainly males Literal meaning "the one in front of my hand". Temē, a reduction of temae, is more rude. Used when the speaker is very angry. Originally used for a humble first person. The Kanji are seldom used with this meaning, as unrelated to its use as a pronoun, 手前 can also mean "before", "this side", "one's standpoint" or "one's appearance".
kisama きさま 貴様 extremely hostile and rude mainly males Historically very formal, but has developed in an ironic sense to show the speaker's extreme hostility / outrage towards the addressee.
kimi きみ 君 informal both The kanji means "lord" (archaic) and is also used to write -kun.[25] Informal to subordinates; can also be affectionate; formerly very polite. Among peers typically used with 僕 boku.[21] Often seen as rude or assuming when used with superiors, elders or strangers.[21]
kika きか 貴下 informal, to a younger person both
kikan きかん 貴官 very formal, used to address government officials, military personnel, etc. both
on-sha おんしゃ 御社 formal, used to the listener representing your company both Only used in spoken language.
ki-sha きしゃ 貴社 formal, similar to onsha both Only used in written language as opposed to onsha.
– he / she –
ano kata あのかた あの方 very formal both Sometimes pronounced ano hou, but with the same kanji. 方 means "direction," and is more formal by avoiding referring to the actual person in question.
ano hito あのひと あの人 neutral both Literally "that person".
yatsu やつ 奴 informal both A thing (very informal), dude, guy.
koitsu, koyatsu こいつ, こやつ 此奴 very informal, implies contempt both Denotes a person or material nearby the speaker. Analogous to "he/she" or "this one".
soitsu, soyatsu そいつ, そやつ 其奴 very informal, implies contempt both Denotes a person or material nearby the listener. Analogous to "he/she" or "that one".
aitsu, ayatsu あいつ, あやつ 彼奴 very informal, implies contempt both Denotes a person or (less frequently) material far from both the speaker and the listener. Analogous to "he/she" or "that one".
– he –
kare かれ 彼 formal (neutral) and informal (boyfriend) both Can also mean "boyfriend". Formerly 彼氏 kareshi was its equivalent, but this now always means "boyfriend".[citation needed] Literally meaning "that one", in classical Japanese it could mean "he", "she", or "it".[26]
– she –
kanojo かのじょ 彼女 formal (neutral) and informal (girlfriend) both Originally created in the 19th century as an equivalent to female pronouns in European languages. Initially pronounced kano onna, it literally means "that female".[27] Can also mean "girlfriend".[28]
– we (see also list of pluralising suffixes, below) –
ware-ware われわれ 我々 formal both Mostly used when speaking on behalf of a company or group.
ware-ra われら 我等 informal both Used in literary style. ware is never used with -tachi.
hei-sha へいしゃ 弊社 formal and humble both Used when representing one's own company. From a Sino-Japanese word meaning "low company" or "humble company".
waga-sha わがしゃ 我が社 formal both Used when representing one's own company.
– they (see also list of pluralising suffixes, below) –
kare-ra かれら 彼等 common in spoken Japanese and writing both

Archaic personal pronouns

Romaji Hiragana Kanji Meaning Level of speech Gender Notes
asshi あっし 私 I males Slang version of watashi. From the Edo period.
sessha せっしゃ 拙者 I males Used by samurai during the feudal ages (and often also by ninja in fictionalised portrayals). From a Sino-Japanese word meaning "one who is clumsy".
wagahai わがはい 我が輩, 吾輩 I males Literally "my fellows; my class; my cohort", but used in a somewhat pompous manner as a first-person singular pronoun.
soregashi それがし 某 I males Literally "So-and-so", a nameless expression. Similar to sessha.
warawa わらわ 妾 I females Literally "child". Mainly used by women in samurai families. Today, it is used in fictional settings to represent archaic noble female characters.
wachiki わちき I females Used by geisha and oiran in Edo period. Also あちき achiki and わっち wacchi.
yo よ 余, 予 I males Archaic first-person singular pronoun.
chin ちん 朕 We both Used only by the Emperor, mostly before World War II.
maro まろ 麻呂, 麿 I males Used as a universal first-person pronoun in ancient times. Today, it is used in fictional settings to represent Court noble male characters.
onore おのれ 己 I or you males The word onore, as well as the kanji used to transcribe it, literally means "oneself". It is humble when used as a first person pronoun and hostile (on the level of てめえ temee or てまえ temae) when used as a second person pronoun.
kei けい 卿 you males Second person pronoun, used mostly by males. Used among peers to denote light respect, and by a superior addressing his subjects and retainers in a familiar manner. Like 君 kimi, this can also be used as an honorific (pronounced as きょう kyou), in which case it's equivalent to "lord/lady" or "sir/dame".
nanji なんじ 汝, less commonly also 爾 you, often translated as "thou" both Spelled as なむち namuchi in the most ancient texts and later as なんち nanchi or なんぢ nanji.
onushi おぬし 御主, お主 you both Used by elders and samurai to talk to people of equal or lower rank. Literally means "master".
sonata そなた 其方 (rarely used) you both Originally a mesial deictic pronoun meaning "that side; that way; that direction"; used as a lightly respectful second person pronoun in previous eras, but now used when speaking to an inferior in a pompous and old-fashioned tone.
sochi そち 其方 (rarely used) you both Similar to そなた sonata. Literally means "that way". (Sochira and kochira, sometimes shortened to sotchi and kotchi, are still sometimes used to mean roughly "you" and "I, we", e.g. kochira koso in response to thanks or an apology means literally "this side is the one" but idiomatically "no, I (or we) thank/apologise to you"; especially common on the telephone, analogous to phrases like "on this end" and "on your end" in English. Kochira koso is often translated as "me/us, too" or "likewise" – it is certainly a reciprocation gesture, but sometimes a little more.)

Suffixes

Suffixes are added to pronouns to make them plural.

Romaji Hiragana Kanji Level of speech Notes
tachi たち 達 informal; examples:
  • 僕達, boku-tachi
  • 私達, watashi-tachi
  • あなた達, anata-tachi
  • 君達, kimi-tachi
 Also can be attached to names to indicate that person and the group they are with (Ryuichi-tachi = "Ryuichi and friends").
kata,
gata 		かた,
がた 		方 formal (ex. あなた方, anata-gata) More polite than 達 tachi. gata is the rendaku form.
domo ども 共 humble (ex. 私ども, watakushi-domo) Casts some aspersion on the mentioned group, so it can be rude. domo is the rendaku form.
ra ら 等 informal (ex. 彼ら, karera. 俺ら, ore-ra. 奴ら, yatsu-ra. あいつら, aitsu-ra) Used with informal pronouns. Frequently used with hostile words. Sometimes used for light humble as domo (ex. 私ら, watashi-ra).

Demonstrative and interrogative pronouns

Demonstrative words, whether functioning as pronouns, adjectives or adverbs, fall into four groups. Words beginning with ko- indicate something close to the speaker (so-called proximal demonstratives). Those beginning with so- indicate separation from the speaker or closeness to the listener (medial), while those beginning with a- indicate greater distance (distal). Interrogative words, used in questions, begin with do-.[14]

Demonstratives are normally written in hiragana.

Romaji Hiragana Kanji Meaning
kore これ 此れ this thing / these things (close to the 1st person)
sore それ 其れ that thing / those things (close to the 2nd person)
are あれ 彼れ that thing / those things (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)
dore どれ 何れ which thing(s)?
kochira or kotchi こちら / こっち 此方 this / here (close to the 1st person)
sochira or sotchi そちら / そっち 其方 that / there (close to the 2nd person)
achira or atchi あちら / あっち 彼方 that / there (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)
dochira or dotchi どちら / どっち 何方 what / where

When a Japanese speaker uses ko-, so- and a- forms, they are not necessarily considering spatial distance, but also psychological, temporal and topical distance.[29][30]

For more forms, see Japanese demonstratives on Wiktionary.

Other interrogative pronouns include 何 なに nani "what?" and 誰 だれ dare "who(m)?".

Reflexive

Japanese has only one word corresponding to reflexive pronouns such as myself, yourself, or themselves in English. The word 自分 (jibun) means "one's self" and may be used for human beings or some animals. It is not used for cold-blooded animals or inanimate objects.[14][better source needed]

Old Japanese pronouns

Each Old Japanese pronoun has a "long" form that ends in -re, and a "short" form without -re. When combining with a genitive particle, the short forms of personal pronouns, as well as animate nouns, notably combined only with ga, while demonstratives (ko, so, (k)a) and inanimate nouns combined with no, only with ga in limited circumstances; in contrast, modern Japanese pronouns (many of which were originally nouns) and nouns only combine with no. The short forms are used with ga and in compounds, while the long forms are used independently.[31]

Old Japanese personal pronouns
Person Long form Short form Genitive form
1st (w)are
"I/me" 		(w)a (w)a-ga
"my/mine"
2nd nare
"thou/thee" 		na na-ga
"thy/thine"
3rd si si-ga
"his/her(s)"
tare
"who(m)" 		ta ta-ga
"whose"

Of these, tare evolved into modern dare,[32] whose genitive form is simply dare-no. Ta-ga is sometimes used for literary effect, for example in the Japanese title of For Whom the Bell Tolls (誰がために鐘は鳴る, Ta-ga Tame-ni Kane-wa Naru). Ware is often used in fiction, and wa-ga in fixed expressions, such as 我が国 ("my/our country").

Genitive forms, when combining with a noun that began in a vowel, may fuse with it. For example, wa-ga "my" + imo "sister" → wa-gimo "my sister"; wa-ga + ipe1 "house" → wa-gipe1 "my house" (wa-gie in modern Japanese).[32]

Old Japanese demonstratives
Type Long form Short form Genitive form
Proximal (close to the 1st person) kore ko ko-no
Mesial (close to the 2nd person) sore so so-no
Distal (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons) kare ka ka-no

These demonstratives largely survived intact into modern Japanese. Kare came to be used as a gender-neutral third-person personal pronoun, and eventually used to translate masculine third-person pronouns specifically in European languages ("he/him"), while ka-no was used to create kanojo and to translate feminine pronouns ("she/her").[33]

The modern pronouns kanojo and kareshi

The third-person feminine pronoun, kanojo (彼（かの）女（じょ）), had not existed until sometime around the end of the Tokugawa shogunate and the beginning of the Meiji era.[29] Prior to this, the distal demonstrative pronoun kare, are (彼, lit. 'that' (locationally, someone or something far from both the 1st and 2nd persons)) was used as a gender-neutral personal pronoun.[5][34]

彼女 started out as a mere shortened spelling of the phrase ka-no wonna (かのをんな), which could be spelt in full as 彼（か）の女（をんな）, literally simply means "that female person," and is composed of the genitive form of kare, ka-no, and the noun wonna (now onna). Although not being a pronoun in a lexicographic sense, this phrase can be used pronominally like modern expressions such as a-no hito (あの人, lit. 'that person') or a-no mono (あの者, lit. 'that individual') for the singular "they/them," a-no otoko (あの男, lit. 'that male person') for "he/him," and of course, a-no onna (あの女, lit. 'that female person') for "she/her." The pronunciation of this phrase was consistently listed as ka-no wonna (カノヲンナ) across various pronunciation dictionaries for elementary students during the Meiji era.[35][36][37][38][39][f][40][g][41][h][42][43][44] The earliest exception was the 1876 dictionary Kaisei Syougaku Tokuhon Zibiki (改正小學讀本字引)[34] by 田中𦤺知, which listed KA-NO ZYO Mukau-ni wiru musume (彼（カノ）女（ジヨ）　ムカウニヰルムスメ, lit. 'THAT FEMALE-PERSON: The girl who is way over there').[45][i] It has been suggested that the editor may have simply used ka-no zyo (now kanojo) for novelty back when jo (女) was still commonly used as a free noun.[34] This unique pronunciation was listed in a few later dictionaries.[46][f][47][48] The same aforementioned dictionaries and more also listed ka-no wotoko (彼（カノ）男（ヲトコ）, lit. 'that male person'),[49][50][51][j][52][k][53][l][54] ka-no mono (彼（カノ）者（モノ）, lit. 'that individual')[55][56][57][58][m] and ka-no hito (彼（カノ）人（ヒト）, lit. 'that person').[59][60][61]

The phrase ka-no wonna (and its alternative ka-no zyo) rose to prominence due to Meiji writers' need to translate third-person feminine pronouns in European languages,[34] such as she and her in English or elle and elles in French, which they eventually incorporated into their own writings. An 1871 French-Japanese dictionary translated elle as ka-no wonna-ha. ka-no wonna-ni. tuma (彼女ハ。彼女ニ。夫, lit. 'that-GEN female-person-TOP; that-GEN female-person-DAT; spouse'), and elles as kare-ra (彼等, lit. 'those');[62] an 1885 English-Japanese dictionary translated her as ka-no wonna. ka-no wonna-ni. ka-no wonna-wo (彼（カ）ノ女（ヲンナ）。彼ノ女ニ。彼ノ女ヲ, lit. 'that-GEN female-person; that-GEN female-person-DAT; that-GEN female-person-ACC'),[63] herself as ka-no wonna zisin-ni (彼女自身（カノヲンナジシン）ニ, lit. 'that-GEN female-person self-INS'),[64] and she as ka-no wonna. mesu (彼女。雌（カノヲンナメス）, lit. 'that-GEN female-person; female').[65] In contrast, masculine pronouns such as he[n][66]/him[o]/his[p],[67] il[q][68]/ils[r],[69] etc. were translated with kare (彼)[70] and kare-ra (彼等).

Kanojo, as a lexicalized pronoun, was first attested in literature in its written furigana-glossed form as kanozyo (彼（かの）女（じよ）)[71] in the 1885 novel Tousei Syosei Katagi (當世書生気質) by Tsubouchi Shōyō.[5] Meanwhile, Sudō Nansui (Mitsuaki) used sī (彼女（シー）, lit. 'she')[72] and ka-no wonna (彼（かの）女（をんな）)[73] in his 1887 novel The Ladies of New Style (新粧之佳人, Sinsou no Kazin); and Futabatei Shimei used are (彼女（あれ）, lit. 'that') in his novel Ukigumo published in the same year.[74] As a phrase, ka-no wonna/ka-no zyo referred to female non-relatives, but as a pronoun, kanojo came to be used for female family members in literature,[5] for example by Natsume Sōseki in his 1912 novel To the Spring Equinox and Beyond (彼岸過迄, Higan Sugi-made), where a character refers to his mother as kanodyo (彼（かの）女（ぢよ）);[75][s] the regular phrase ka-no wonna (彼（かの）女（をんな）) still occurs in reference to a different woman.[76] At this point, the phrase ka-no wonna and the pronoun kanojo/kanodyo coexisted with different usages even in the same work. Kanojo eventually acquired its status as a lexicalized noun meaning "girlfriend" during the late Taishō era.[5][34]

The third-person masculine pronoun kareshi (彼氏) was coined during the early Shōwa era as an alternative to the once-gender-neutral kare (彼) and as the opposite to the feminine kanojo (彼女). Its first written attestation as a pronoun is attributed to Tokugawa Musei's 1929 essay collection Mandanshū (漫談集);[77][78] as a noun meaning "boyfriend," to Nagai Kafū's 1934 novel Hikage-no Hana (ひかげの花).[77][79] Morphologically, kareshi (彼氏) is composed of the aforementioned demonstrative-turned-personal pronoun kare (彼) and -shi (氏), the latter of which is an honorific suffix to names,[77][78] mostly male names,[78] and can be translated as "Mr."[80] Kareshi was often used in a tongue-in-cheek way;[77] compare the masculine and self-aggrandizing ore-sama (俺様),[29] which also consists of a pronoun (ore (俺, "I/me")) and an honorific suffix (-sama (様)).

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Of the nine parts of speech (九品, kyūhin), there were nouns (實體言／ヰコトバ, zittaigen/wikotoba) and pronouns (代名言／カヘコトバ, daimeigen/kahekotoba).
  2. ^ Of the seven parts of speech (七品詞, shichihinshi), there were nouns (名詞／ナコトバ, meishi/nakotoba) and pronouns (代名詞／カハリコトバ, daimeishi/kaharikotoba).
  3. ^ Of the nine parts of speech (九品詞, kyūhinshi), there were nouns (名詞, meishi) and pronouns (代名詞, daimeishi).
  4. ^ Of the eight parts of speech (八品詞, happinshi), there were only nouns (名詞, meishi), while proper nouns (固有名詞, koyūmeishi), pronouns (代名詞, daimeishi) and numerals (數詞, sūshi) were their subclass.
  5. ^ Of the five parts of speech (五品詞, gohinshi), there were only nouns (名詞, meishi), while pronouns (代名詞, daimeishi) were their subclass.
  6. ^ a b Also a-no wonna (アノヲンナ).
  7. ^ Spelt ka-no onna (カノオンナ). Also hizyo (ヒジヨ).
  8. ^ Also a-no musume (アノムスメ, lit. 'that daughter/girl').
  9. ^ Mukau-ni wiru musume (ムカウニヰルムスメ) would be spelt in modern Japanese as mukō-ni iru musume (向こうにいる娘). This gloss is very literal in that it conveys the demonstrative meaning of kare and ka-no as referring to persons or things physically far away from both the 1st and 2nd persons, rather than the abstract pronomimal usage of such expression as "that female person."
  10. ^ Spelt ka-no otoko (カノオトコ).
  11. ^ Also a-no wotoko (アノヲトコ).
  12. ^ Spelt ka-no otoko (カノオトコ). Also hinan (ヒナン).
  13. ^ Also a-no mono (アノモノ).
  14. ^ kare-ga. kare-ha. karehito-ga (彼（カレ）ガ。彼ハ。彼人（カレヒト）ガ。, lit. 'that-NOM; that-TOP; that-person-NOM')
  15. ^ kare-wo. kare-ni (彼（カレ）ヲ。彼（カレ）ニ, lit. 'that-ACC; that-DAT')
  16. ^ kare-no. karehito-no (彼（カレ）ノ。彼人（カレヒト）ノ, lit. 'that-GEN; that-person-GEN')
  17. ^ kare; sore (彼。其, lit. 'that (far from both the 1st and 2nd persons); that (close to the 2nd person)')
  18. ^ kare-ra (彼等)
  19. ^ Dyo (now jo) was the kan'on pronunciation of the kanji 女.

References

  1. ^ Chamberlain, Basil Hall (1886). "Chapter IV. The Pronoun". A Simplified Grammar of the Japanese Language. p. 13. The Japanese words corresponding to the personal pronouns of European languages are simply nouns whose original significations are in most cases perfectly clear, and which are indeed still often used with those significations. They answer to such English expressions as "your humble servant" (meaning "I").
  2. ^ Weintz, Henry John (1904). "The Pronoun". Hossfeld's Japanese Grammar. Hirschfeld Brothers. p. 16. The Japanese substitutes for the Personal Pronouns of Western languages are merely nouns which by process of time have become pronominal, and their discussion as separate parts of speech is merely to suit the convenience of the foreign student.
  3. ^ Aston, William George (1904). "Pronouns". A Grammar of the Japanese Written Language (3rd ed.). p. 49. The distinction of person which holds so prominent a place in the Aryan languages has little place in Japanese. The verb has no grammatical inflections to indicate person, and although there are words which correspond in meaning to the personal pronouns of other languages, their grammar is the same as that of nouns, and the idea of placing them in a separate class has not even suggested itself to the native grammarians.
  4. ^ Matsuoka McClain, Yoko (1981). "Pronouns". Handbook of Modern Japanese Grammar. The Hokuseido Press. p. 191. Japanese pronouns are a class of nouns. Thus, the rules governing the use of pronouns are the same as those of nouns as shown below:
  5. ^ a b c d e Yamaguchi, Akiho; Akimoto, Morihide, eds. (1 March 2001). 日本語文法大辞典 (in Japanese). Meiji Shoin.
  6. ^ Tsurumine, Shigenobu (1831). 語學新書 (in Japanese). Vol. 1.
  7. ^ Tanaka, Yoshikado (1874). 小學日本文典 (in Japanese). Vol. 2.
  8. ^ Hashimoto, Shinkichi (1935). 新文典別記 上級用 (in Japanese). Fuzanbō. p. 7.
  9. ^ Ōtsuki, Fumihiko (1897). 廣日本文典 (in Japanese).
  10. ^ Matsushita, Daizaburō (1927). 改撰標凖日本文法 (in Japanese).
  11. ^ Morita, Shingo (26 July 2021). 「学校文法」成立過程における指導内容の生成と収斂 (PDF) (Doctor of Philosophy in Education thesis) (in Japanese). University of Tsukuba. 10.15068/0002000707.
  12. ^ Noguchi, Tohru (1997). "Two types of pronouns and variable binding". Language. 73 (4): 770–797. doi:10.1353/lan.1997.0021. S2CID 143722779.
  13. ^ Kanaya, Takehiro (2002). 日本語に主語はいらない Nihongo ni shugo wa iranai [In Japanese subjects are not needed]. Kodansha.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Akiyama, Nobuo; Akiyama, Carol (2002). Japanese Grammar. Barron's Educational. ISBN 0764120611.
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  16. ^ Maynard, Senko K: "An Introduction to Japanese Grammar and Communication Strategies", page 45. The Japan Times, 4th edition, 1993. ISBN 4-7890-0542-9
  17. ^ "The many ways to say "I" in Japanese | nihonshock". nihonshock.com. Retrieved 17 October 2016.
  18. ^ Hatasa, Yukiko Abe; Hatasa, Kazumi; Makino, Seiichi (2014). Nakama 1: Japanese Communication Culture Context. Cengage Learning. p. 314. ISBN 9781285981451.
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  22. ^ Maynard, Senko K. (2016). Fluid orality in the discourse of Japanese popular culture. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 226. ISBN 978-90-272-6713-9. OCLC 944246641.
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  24. ^ "Language Log » Japanese first person pronouns". languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu.
  25. ^ "old boy". Kanjidict.com. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  26. ^ Haruo Shirane (2005) Classical Japanese: A Grammar. Columbia University Press. p. 256
  27. ^ "彼女とは".
  28. ^ "he". Kanjidict.com. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
  29. ^ a b c Nihon Kokugo Daijiten
  30. ^ Daijirin
  31. ^ Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). "Part I: Old Japanese". A History of the Japanese Language. Cambridge University Press.
  32. ^ a b Daijirin
  33. ^ Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). "Part IV: Modern Japanese". A History of the Japanese Language. Cambridge University Press.
  34. ^ a b c d e "彼女". コトバンク.
  35. ^ 師範学校; Ban, Genpei, eds. (May 1875). 改正小𭓕讀本字引 (in Japanese). Akashi Chūshichi. p. 3.
  36. ^ Nishino, Kokai, ed. (November 1875). 小學入門小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 弘成堂. p. 20.
  37. ^ Nishino, Kokai, ed. (February 1876). 地理初歩小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 萬笈閣. p. 6.
  38. ^ Fujii, Suiben, ed. (May 1876). 小𫝯讀本字引 (in Japanese). 甘泉堂. p. 18.
  39. ^ 三宅, 秀一, ed. (June 1876). 小𫝯讀本字引 (in Japanese). 森本太助. p. 5.
  40. ^ Emoto, Kahee, ed. (November 1878). 改正小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 𮎰川藤兵衛. p. 3.
  41. ^ Sugiyama, Yoshitoshi, ed. (March 1879). 改正小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 東崖堂. p. 3.
  42. ^ 藤井, 幸三郎, ed. (November 1882). 改正小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). p. 5.
  43. ^ 名和, 喜七, ed. (June 1884). 小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 池善平. p. 7.
  44. ^ 朝野, 泰彥, ed. (March 1886). 小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 正文書堂. p. 3.
  45. ^ 田中, 𦤺知, ed. (December 1876). 改正小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 内藤半七. p. 3.
  46. ^ 濱眞砂, ed. (July 1879). 改正小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 藤森平五郎. p. 7.
  47. ^ 伊藤, 頴男, ed. (September 1882). 小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 文海堂. p. 5.
  48. ^ 北川, 正兵衛, ed. (March 1884). 小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 濱本三郎. p. 6.
  49. ^ Nishino, Kokai, ed. (November 1875). 小學入門小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 弘成堂. p. 40.
  50. ^ 師範学校; Ban, Genpei, eds. (May 1875). 改正小𭓕讀本字引 (in Japanese). Akashi Chūshichi. p. 10.
  51. ^ Fujii, Suiben, ed. (May 1876). 小𫝯讀本字引 (in Japanese). 甘泉堂. p. 32.
  52. ^ 三宅, 秀一, ed. (June 1876). 小𫝯讀本字引 (in Japanese). 森本太助. p. 5.
  53. ^ Emoto, Kahee, ed. (November 1878). 改正小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 𮎰川藤兵衛. p. 12.
  54. ^ 濱眞砂, ed. (July 1879). 改正小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 藤森平五郎. p. 24.
  55. ^ 森口, 永太, ed. (September 1882). 画入小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). Vol. 4 and 5. 濱本三郎. p. 21.
  56. ^ 木村, 敏, ed. (May 1883). 新撰小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 伊勢安右衞門. p. 49.
  57. ^ 大塚, 宇三郎, ed. (December 1889). 畵入尋常小𭓕讀本字引 (in Japanese). 田中宋榮堂. p. 12.
  58. ^ 竹田, 肇, ed. (March 1893). 尋常小𭓕讀本字引 (in Japanese). 竹田肇. p. 19.
  59. ^ 原, 鐵城, ed. (October 1876). 小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). Vol. 5. 有斐堂. p. 7.
  60. ^ Nishino, Kokai, ed. (February 1876). 地理初歩小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 萬笈閣. p. 82.
  61. ^ 木村, 敏, ed. (May 1883). 新撰小學讀本字引 (in Japanese). 伊勢安右衞門. p. 48.
  62. ^ Nugent, M., ed. (1871). 官許佛和辭典 [Nouveau dictionnaire français-japonais] (in French and Japanese). Translated by 好樹堂. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 147.
  63. ^ Taki, Hichizō, ed. (September 1885). 英和正辭典 [An English and Japanese Dictionary] (in English and Japanese). Ōsaka: Shosekikaisha. p. 247.
  64. ^ Taki, Hichizō, ed. (September 1885). 英和正辭典 [An English and Japanese Dictionary] (in English and Japanese). Ōsaka: Shosekikaisha. p. 248.
  65. ^ Taki, Hichizō, ed. (September 1885). 英和正辭典 [An English and Japanese Dictionary] (in English and Japanese). Ōsaka: Shosekikaisha. p. 459.
  66. ^ Taki, Hichizō, ed. (September 1885). 英和正辭典 [An English and Japanese Dictionary] (in English and Japanese). Ōsaka: Shosekikaisha. p. 244.
  67. ^ Taki, Hichizō, ed. (September 1885). 英和正辭典 [An English and Japanese Dictionary] (in English and Japanese). Ōsaka: Shosekikaisha. p. 249.
  68. ^ Nugent, M., ed. (1871). 官許佛和辭典 [Nouveau dictionnaire français-japonais] (in French and Japanese). Translated by 好樹堂. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 216.
  69. ^ Nugent, M., ed. (1871). 官許佛和辭典 [Nouveau dictionnaire français-japonais] (in French and Japanese). Translated by 好樹堂. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press. p. 217.
  70. ^ "彼". コトバンク.
  71. ^ Tsubouchi, Shōyō (1885). 當世書生気質 (in Japanese). 晩青堂. p. 15. 彼女（かのじよ）ハ活潑（くわつぱつ）だ。
  72. ^ Sudō, Mitsuaki (1887). "第五回　幽（いう）爽（さう）の靈（れい）地（ち）には明（めい）媚（び）なる新（しん）晴（せい）を觀（み）るべし". 新粧之佳人 [The Ladies of New Style] (in Japanese). Tōkyō: 正文堂. p. 79. 彼（シ）女（ー）もまんざら心（こ〱ろ）のない女（をんな）でもあるまいから
  73. ^ Sudō, Mitsuaki (1887). "第十二回　彫（てう）琢（たく）の美（うつ）くしき玉（たま）は妨（ばう）害（がい）なく轉（てん）輾（〱）すべし". 新粧之佳人 [The Ladies of New Style] (in Japanese). Tōkyō: 正文堂. p. 214.
  74. ^ Futabatei, Shimei (1887). "　第（だい）二回（くわい）　風（ふう）變（かわ）りな戀（こひ）の初（はつ）峯（みね）入（いり）　上". 新扁浮雲 (in Japanese). 金港堂. p. 38. 「彼女（あれ）に何（なに）したのぢやアないのか知（し）らね」
  75. ^ Natsume, Sōseki (1912). "須永の話" [Sunaga’s Story]. 彼岸過迄 [To the Spring Equinox and Beyond] (in Japanese). Translated by Ochiai, Kingo; Goldstein, Sanford. Shun'yōdō. pp. 301–302. 母（はゝ）の性（せい）格（かく）は吾（われ）々（〱）が昔（むかし）から用（もち）ひ慣（な）れた慈（じ）母（ぼ）といふ言（こと）葉（ば）で形（けい）容（よう）さへすれば、夫（それ）で盡（つ）さてゐる。僕（ぼく）から見（み）ると彼（かの）女（ぢよ）は此（この）二字（じ）の爲（ため）に生（うま）れて此（この）二字（じ）の爲（ため）に死（し）ぬと云（い）つても差（さし）支（つかへ）ない。まことに氣（き）の毒（どく）であるが、夫（それ）でも母（はゝ）は生（せい）活（くわつ）の滿（まん）足（ぞく）を此（この）一點（てん）にのみ集（しふ）注（ちゆう）してゐるのだから、僕（ぼく）さへ充（じう）分（べん）の孝（かう）行（かう）が出（で）來（き）れば、是（これ）に越（こ）した彼（かの）女（ぢよ）の喜（よろこ）びはないのである。 [My mother’s character can be described most easily as that of an affectionate mother. From my point of view, she is certainly a woman who was born for the sake of those two words and who will die for them. Actually, that makes me feel sorry for her, yet since her one satisfaction in life is concentrated on this one point, I realize that as long as I do what I should as a good son, she’ll find no greater delight than that.]
  76. ^ Natsume, Sōseki (1912). "停留所" [At the Streetcar Stop]. 彼岸過迄 [To the Spring Equinox and Beyond] (in Japanese). Translated by Ochiai, Kingo; Goldstein, Sanford. Shun'yōdō. p. 162. 所（ところ）が今（いま）後（うしろ）から見（み）た女（をんな）は身（から）體（だ）といひ氣（き）分（ぶん）といひ比（ひ）較（かく）的（てき）沈（ちん）靜（せい）して兩（りやう）方（はう）の間（あひだ）に旨（うま）く調（てう）子（し）が取（と）れてゐる樣（やう）に思（おも）はれた。彼（かの）女（をんな）は先（さつ）刻（き）と違（ちが）つて、別（べつ）段（だん）姿（し）勢（せい）を改（あらた）めるでもなく、そろ〱步（ある）き出（だ）すでもなく、寶（はう）石（せき）商（しやう）の窓（まど）へ寄（よ）り添（そ）ふでもなく、寒（さむ）さを凌（しの）ぎかねる風（ふ）情（ぜい）もなく、殆（ほと）んど閑（かん）雅（が）とでも形（けい）容（よう）したい樣（やう）子（す）をして、一段（だん）高（たか）くなつた人（じん）道（だう）の端（はし）に立（たつ）てゐた。 [Yet observed from behind, her body and mood were well balanced, both being quieter now than they had been before. Unlike a short while ago, she now gave no indication that she was going to begin to walk slowly away or stand up against a shop window, nor did she show any sign of being chilled, standing as she was at the edge of the elevated pavement in a way that could only be described as elegant.]
  77. ^ a b c d "彼氏". コトバンク.
  78. ^ a b c Daijisen
  79. ^ "ひかげの花". 青空文庫. 「母（かあ）さんの彼（かれ）氏（し）……。」
  80. ^ Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary
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