Huoshu

Fire rat depicted in Japanese woodblock print.

―Terajima Ryōan, Wakan sansai zue

The huoshu^[1] or huo shu (火鼠), meaning fire rat or fire mouse is a fantastical beast in Chinese tradition.^[2][1]

It is said to dwell inside fire within incombustible trees growing in mountains in the south of China. Its hair when woven into cloth was said to turn into cloth that became clean when burnt, and thus equated with merchandise known as huo huan bu (火浣布) or "fire-laundered cloth",^[a] though such cloth in reality is considered to have been a type of asbestos cloth, not animal hair or plant fiber textile as claimed in ancient tracts.

Attestations

According to the Shenyi Jing (神異經, "Book of Gods and Strange Things") purported from the Han period,^[b] of which there are different redactions, the "Fire Mountain[s]" in the south measure 40 li in length, where there grows "unincineratable trees" (bu jin mu 不燼木 , cf. § Ashless wood below). These keep burning day and night, yet the fire will not wax when windy nor extinguish in rain. Within such fire dwells a mouse. It weighs 100 jin/ catties (var. 1000 catties^[5]).^[c], and has hairs 2 chi long,^[d], fine white hair, like silk. It dies if water is poured on it, and by weaving its hair into cloth, any filth or grime on it will be cleaned when burnt by fire.^[7][10][12]

The "Fire Mountain[s]" in the foregoing tract has been identified with the "Mountain of Flame" (炎火之山) of mythic Kunlun according to the Soushen ji (捜神記, "In Search of the Supernatural"). According to this work, the mountain's beast are the source of hair for making the "fire-laundered cloth".^[13][14]

There is also the huo guang shou (火光獸) or literally "fire light beast" according to the Shizhou ji [zh] (十洲記; "Records of the Ten Islands Within the Sea"), which lists it as fauna of Yan zhou (炎洲, one of legendary ten island-provinces),^[15] describing it as rat-like and rat-sized, with hairs 3 or 4 cun long.^[e][16] This is also assumed to be another description of whatever animal that supposedly yielded fireproof cloth.^[14]

Another attestation occurs in Ge Hong's Baopuzi (抱朴子) which places in Nanhai (South China Sea?) the (volcanic) "Xiao Hill" (蕭丘)^[18] measured 1000 li square, igniting in spring and extinguishing in autumn. Here grew plants and the white rat (白鼠) weighing several catties, with hair 3 cun long, immune to burning. The mountain's flowers, bark, and rodent hair yielded 3 types of fireproof cloth (huo huan bu ).^{[f][20][21][5][17]}

The fire rat resided in the Rinan commandery in present-day Vietnam, according to the Wu li (呉録 "Record of Wu").^[g] but belonged to the Chinese kingdom of Wu in the past.^[13][14]

The number figures given in these treatises may be rhetorical (hyperbolic). In one account above, the so-called rat weighed a massive 1000 catties (anciently 250 kilograms (550 lb)^[6][22]), as much a large mammal.^[23] At the modest end, it was said to weigh several catties.^[5]

According to Sui shu xiyu chuan (隋書西域傳; "Accounts on the Western Regions in the Book of Sui"), during the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui, fire rat fur was brought back by envoys returning from the Sogdian city-state Shi Guo (史国)) or Kesh, the present-day Shahrisabz, Uzbekistan.^[1][24]

Early modern era

Whereas Li Shizhen, the compiler of the pharmaceutical Bencao Gangmu wrote^[h] that the beast occurred in the Western Region as well as "Fire Province" of the "Southern Seas" or Nanhai Houzhou, i.e., volcanic islands in a corridor of Southeast Asia.^[25] It is possible to parse the passage to read so that "Fire Province" of the Western Region is meant here as well, which is identifiable as Uyghur state of Qocho, near Turfan in modern-day Xinjiang Autonomous Region.^[i][26] Note this coincides with Henry Yule's identification of Chingintalas as Qocho, being the locale where Marco Polo witnessed the asbestos mine.^[27]

Li Shizen was the opinion that in these locals, where wildfires lasted spring to summer, it was not only the fur of the fire rat here, but also barks and skins of trees and grasses/forbs that could be woven into "cloths washed with fire".^[2] (cf. § Fire-laundered cloth). But Li also categorized the "ashless wood" ( bu hui mu 不灰木) to be a mineral (asbestos), and discussed it under the stones section, and though Li did not list its use as cloth, the "ashless wood" has elsewhere been equated with the "unincineratable wood" relating to the "fire-laundered cloth".^[28]　(cf. § Ashless wood).

Early Japanese literature

The creature, pronounced kaso, hinezumi or hi no nezumi in Japanese, is of particular interest in classical Japanese litearary studies since its pelt-robe is demanded by the Princess Kaguya in The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, and also mentioned in the Genji Monogatari.

The Wamyō Ruijushō (mid 10th cent.) ^[j] gives the Japanese pronunciation as hinezumi (比禰須三, lit. 'fire rat'), and quotes from the Shenyi jing.^[11][29]

In The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, the historical personage Abe no Miushi [ja] appears as one of the suitors of Princess Kaguya, and he is assigned the task of bringing the hinezumi no kawagoromo (火鼠の裘) or kawaginu (皮衣).^[30] In Tanaka Ōhide's commentary, this is equated with the "fire-laundered cloth" of Chinese literature, quoting from the Shenyi jing as well as the Wei zhi (魏志), of the Records of the Three Kingdoms) and Shui Jing Zhu ("Commentary on the Water Classic").^[31]

In the Genji monogatari, the 17th chapter "E-awase" features a picture scroll with painted scenes from the "fire rat's pelt robe" episode of the Bamboo Cutter's Tale. There have been numerous past commentaries of the classic novel subsequently written, and one of them, the Kakaishō (河海抄) dating to the Muromachi period is an early instance where the "fire rat" is commented on citing references to the "fire-laundered cloth" in classical Chinese sources such as the Shenyi jing and the Shizhou ji.^[32]

It has been noted that the item in the Japanese tale is a piece of fur, distinguishable from the woven cloth in Chinese accounts.^[30] Also, the fur Abe managed to obtain, though fake, was of golden-blue color or golden-shining,^[k] whereas the "fire-laundered cloth" is supposed to be white according to Chinese sources.^[30]

Salamander parallel

It has been argued that the Chinese "fire rat" has its parallel in the European fire-sprite salamander. whose lore dates to Greco-Roman times.^[34] Although asbestos was known to Romans, Pliny the Elder (d. 79AD) wrote it was a type of linen or plant,^[35] and did not consider it as animal hair or fur. Eventually, there did develop the notion in the West that salamander yielded asbestos, but this was much later, for example, in a 13th-century alchemical work.^[36][l]

In Berthold Laufer's formulation, the salamander and asbestos cloth was tied already in antiquity by the Greeks and Romans; he thus theorized asbestos must have been something introduced by the West to China around the Han period or later.^[34] Joseph Needham reviewed this premise, and was unconvinced.^[40][m]

While the Greeks and Romans conceived of salamander as a lizard-like small creature, when the lore transmitted to the Middle East, the Arab and Persian writers treated the samandal ( الـسـمـنـدل) as a phoenix bird, or a rate, etc. Zakariya al-Qazwini (d. 1283) wrote of it as a type of rat that entered fire. Al-Damiri (d. 1405) in his Life of Animals took it to mean the phoenix. The woven cloth from this bird or its feathers had the property of being cleaned when plunged in fire. Similar description is given of the rat.^[34][41] And these pieces of Arab learning were (reimported back) and transmitted to medieval Europe, argued Laufer.^[34]

Whether or not that was the correct route of transmission, it is true the German polymath Albertus Magnus (d. 1280) wrote in his works that the incombustible cloth was salamander feather (Latin: pluma salamandri).^[39] Marco Polo after him recorded in his Travels his observation of the "salamander" being mined, fully recognizing it to be mineral, and refuting the notion asbestos came from animal hair.^[42][43]

Fire-laundered cloth

The "fire-laundered cloth" after being tossed in fire and shaken drops off all its dirt and turns snow-white. according to the aforementioned Shizhou ji and like sources.^[16] Later sources such as the Biyan lu (碧巌錄, "Blue Cliff Record") quoting Yunji Qiqian (雲笈七籤, "Seven Slips of the Cloud Satchel") speak of the cloth being snow-white after being fire-laundered.^[44][45]

The "fire-laundered cloth" was in fact cloth woven from fibrous asbestos (aka amiantus)^[n][46]

The Zhao shu ("Book of Zhou") and Lie Yukou, there is given an account that King Mu of Zhou was given tributes from the Xirong western barbarians, consisting of the jade-cutting-sword and fire-launderd cloth. Laufer consider these as spurious (later fabrications).^[47] and argued prior knowledge in the West before China.^[48] Needham was not willing to concede China had been ignorant before Rome, and discussed the accounts set in the Zhou dynasty period as possibly containing a germ of ancient writings, and worth considering as evidence.^[49]

Theophrastus wrote of an ignitable mineral which resembled "rotten wood", which was arguably asbestos, though this is disputed.^[53] As far as Needham was concerned, back in the 4th century BC, this disciple of Aristotle's disciple did not yet know of asbestos, nor did his learned Chinese contemporary who was vassal to King Goujian of Yueh.^[55]

Thus, in Needham's reckoning, knowledge of asbestos in the West dates to Roman writers from Strabo (d. 24 BC) to Pliny.^[o] Pliny's notion was that the fire-proof cloth was woven plant fibers from India. It can be laundered by tossing in fire, more cleanly than washing in water. It may be red normally, but burning turn it pearl colored, etc.^[p][35]

Ignoring the claims dating to Zhou, the oldest attestation in China of fire-laundering cloth occurs in Yu Huan [zh]'s Weilüe (魏略, 3rd cent.), according to Laufer, which described the fire-laundered cloth as the specialty product of Daqin (大秦) which he takes to mean the Roman Orient.^[q][47] However, In the Wei Records of the Records of the Three Kingdoms, it is stated that during the time of Wei's third emperor Cao Fang (also styled Qi wang 斉王), in the year Jingchu [zh] 3 (237 AD), there arrived from the "Western territories" a tribute of "fire-cloth" (火布, considered to mean "fire-laundered cloth"),^[57] It is not clear what the "Western Territories" mean exactly, ^[58] and modern scholars appear to favor "Central Asia".^[59] The first Emperor Wen of Wei (Cao Pi) had questioned the authenticity of such cloth, as set down in his own authored work Dianlun [zh] ("Canonical Essays" or "Authoritative Discourses"), the essays were set in stone by the second emperor, but after foreigners brought such cloth, this particular "essay/discourse" had to be scraped off.^[60][59][r]

The Jin shu (晋書 "Book of Jin") of records that Emperor Fujian (d. 385) of Former Han received a gift of the fire-laundered cloth from Tianzhu (India) polity, then under the reign of Chandragupta II.^[62][63]

According to the Liu Song dynasty Book of Song, during the Daming [zh] era (657–664), the Sute (粟特, namely Sogdiana) sent envoys who brought gifts of "live lion, fire-laundered cloth, and sweats blood horse (cf. Ferghana horse)".^[64][65]

Ashless wood

Regarding the bu jin mu (不尽木・不燼木・不烬木) or "unincinerable wood" connected with "fire-laundered cloth", the "bu hui mu (不灰木) or "ashless wood" is considered synonymous according to a mythographer's dictionary.^[28]

The topic of bu hui mu is broached in the Bencao Gangmu, Book 9, under the Part on Stones; however, its uses described there do not include use as fabric.^[66][67][4] In the explanation taken from Su Song, it is a type of stone that occurs in Shangdang Commandery, now found widely found in the mountains of Lu [zh] and Ze [zh] provinces.^[s] The stone is white and looks like rotting wood, but burning it produces no ash, hence the name.^[66][67][68]

The compiler Li Shizhen registers his own opinion (similar to Baopuzi above) that there is actually a stone type and tree type. The stone type is harder and heavier, and when steeped in naphtha/petroleum (石腦油) and wrapped in paper, it servede323 as a lamp which can be lit the whole night long without burning down into ashes.^[67]

The tree type of ashless wood, according to Fu Chen's Qi di ji (伏深『齊地記』), was known by the name "wood that conquers fire" (shenghuo mu; 勝火木) and occurred in Dongwu cheng/city (東武城, or Dong Wu Cheng county).^[t] And the tree type according to the Taiping Huanyu Ji (太平寰宇記) occurred in Jiao zhou [zh], and was metal-rod like,^[u] though it had lobes like cattail leaves, and when bunched up into torches, were so long lasting they became known as "torches for a myriad years" (万年火把).^[67][68][4] Li Shizhen himelf bought such a torch, and claims it had burned down by only one or two cun after a whole night.^[67][68]

Explanatory notes

1. The rendition "fire-laundered cloth" by Kazuo Enoki [ja]^[3] will be preferred here, over Unschuld's "cloths washed with fire"^[2] and other translate phrases.
2. Attributed to Dongfang Shuo of Han, but this is considered pseudepigraphic, and the work apparently dates to the JIn or later period.^[4]
3. Ancient weight differs from modern. 1 jin was 250 grams (8.8 oz) in the Han dynasty period.^[6]
4. The chi, or the Chinese foot, measured 23 cm in the Han dynasty period.^[6]
5. A cun is a tenth of chi, or Chinese foot, explained above. Thus 1 cun = 2.3 cm in the Han period, shy of 1 inch.
6. Or Wade-Giles: huo wan pu.
7. Yamaoka elaborates as collectively the nine commanderies of Rinan, which in the present-day is in Northern Vietnam around Gulf of Tonkin and Hainan Island,
8. That is to say he only gives a brief entry prefaced by "Li Shizhen states" and names no outside sources.
9. The name Huozhou does mean "Fire Province" as well, but Huozhou is also the phoentic transliteration of the latter part of "Qara Qojha" (var. of Qocho).
10. Book 18, under "hairs" .
11. One hypothesis is that a superior grade of yellow marten fur was gotten as a substitute of the real thing.^[30] Another observation is that blue asbestos could be derived from fibrous Riebeckite (aka crocidolite) may exhibit blue color, according to Hiroshi Yamaguchi [ja],^[33]
12. Laufer's example is much later, i.e. Barthélemy d'Herbelot (d. 1695),^[37] but d'Herbelot's entry on "salamander" draws his knowledge from Persian (Turkish-translated) sources, thus citing Lutfullah Halimi (lexicographer)'s description of the creature as like a "beech marten or marten (fouine ou martre)" except of different color, red, yellow, or green, from which can be obtained a sturdy cloth (étoffe, 'stuff') that can be tossed in fire, and cleaned, etc.^[38][39] d'Herbelot also cites unspecified Oriental writers as describing the salamander as lizard-like, just as they are conceived of in Europe.^[38]
13. Since Laufer equates salamander and cloth, the remainder of his theorizations will be discussed under § Fire-laundereed cloth.
14. In Japan, inventor Hiraga Gennai during the Edo period was famous for trying to replicate using domestically mined minerals.
15. Laufer apparently considered the knowledge of asbestos to date back all the way to the Greek Theophrastus (d. 287 BC), but Needham observes Theophrastus did not in fact know about it.^[56] Thus, Strabo tops the list of oldest. Theophrastus did discuss the flame-tolerant salamander.^[37]
16. Pliny adds there are also asbestos from Arcadia, which are iron colored.
17. Similar accounts occur in Book of the Later Han Book 100.18, etc.^[47]
18. Thus there is discrepancy on whether the third or second emperor of Wei had received the gift of the "fire cloth". It was the first emperor, Cao Pi himself who received the gift, according to Baopuzi.^[61]
19. Lu province (area around present-day Changzhi) shares some counties with the Shangdang Commandery, while Ze province (around Jincheng) lies to its south.
20. Suzuki's marginal note insists "Dongwucheng" (東武城) were "cities along the Wei River (維水) south of Gaomi city, Shandong." which is consistent with the location given by the Taiping Huanyu Ji , only more precise. However, Unschuld tr.'s companion geographical dictionary gives "Dong wu cheng" as the name of a county, i.e. 东武城县, whose seat was near present-day Qinghe County, Hebei^[69]
21. Or, according to Suzuki, the wood was used as mold in metal casting.

References

Citations

1. Sun, Yuqin; Chang, Xu (2024). General History Of China's Foreign Trade, A (Volume 1). Translated by Rui Su; Robin Gilbank. World Scientific. pp. 109–110. ISBN 9789811256448.
2. Li Shizhen (2021b). "51-39-A07 Huo shu 火鼠 fire rat/mouse". Ben Cao Gang Mu, Volume IX: Fowls, Domestic and Wild Animals, Human Substances. Translated by Paul U. Unschuld. Univ of California Press. p. 870. ISBN 9780520976993.
3. Enoki, Kazuo [in Japanese] (1957). "Marco Polo and Japan". Oriente poliano: studi e conferenze tenute all'Is. M.E.O. in occasione del VII centenario della nascita di Marco Polo, 1254-1954. Roma: Istituto italiano per il Medio e Estremo Oriente. p. 74.
4. Jōfuku (1982), p. 194.
5. Okutsu (1992), pp. 41–42.
6. Qiu Guangming (2017). The History of Ancient Chinese Measures and Weights. ATF Press. pp. 64, 90. ISBN 9781921816482.
7. "南荒經十則". 神異經  (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
8. "卷085§布". 藝文類聚  (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
9. Nakajima (2016), p. 44.
10. Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚, quoting from Shenyi jing.^[8][9]
11. Jōfuku (1982), p. 193.
12. Wakan sansai zue 和漢三才図会 quoting from Shenyi jing.^[9][11]
13. Yamaoka Matsuake [in Japanese] (1904). "Kan 267 shoseki-bu 5 §Monogatari * Taketori monogatari" 巻二百六十七 書籍部五 物語○竹取物語. Ruiju meibutsu kō 類聚名物考. Vol. 6. Kondō kappansho. p. 698.
14. Yamaguchi (2006), p. 38.
15. Hua, Buell & Unschuld (2015), s.v. "Shi zhou 十州", p. 277
16. "Yan zhou 炎洲". Hainei Shizhou Ji 海內十洲記 (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
17. Needham (1959), p. 658.
18. The parenthetical "[volcanic}" supplied in Neeham's quote of Laufer's translation: The hill is transcribed as "Hsiao Chhiu" 粛邱.^[17]
19. "卷080§火". 藝文類聚  (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
20. Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚, quoting from Baopuzi.^[19]
21. Wada (1917), pp. 142–143.
22. Kusano, Takumi (1997). Gensō dōbutsu jiten 幻想動物事典. Truth in fantasy. Shin kigensha. p. 79. ISBN 978-4-88317-283-2.^{[better source needed]}
23. Okutsu calculates the modern-day 1000 catties to be 600 kilograms (1,300 lb), as much as a polar bear.
24. Yamaguchi (2006), pp. 35, 37, 39.
25. Hua, Linfu; Buell, Paul D.; Unschuld, Paul Ulrich, eds. (2015), "Nan hai huo zhou" 南海火州, Dictionary of the Ben Cao Gang Mu, Volume 2: Geographical and Administrative Designations, University of California Press, p. 225, ISBN 9780520291966
26. Hua, Buell & Unschuld (2015), s.v. "Huo zhou 火州", p. 148
27. Polo & Yule tr. (1921), p. 216, note1: "Karakhoja.. near Turfan.. it is here that I would seek for Chingintalas".
28. Yuan Ke (1998). "不灰木" "Bu hui mu" 不灰木. Zhōngguó shénhuà dà cídiǎn 中国神话大词典. Chéngdū: Sìchuān císhū chūbǎnshè. p. 77. ISBN 9787805435602. 不灰木:即不烬木也。参见"火浣布"
29. Nakajima (2016), p. 45.
30. Kawazoe, Fusae [in Japanese] (2008). Hikaru Genji shi ga aishita ōchō burando hin 光源氏が愛した王朝ブランド品. Kadokawa Gakugei Shuppan. pp. 40–42. ISBN 9784047034204.
31. Tanaka Ōhide Taketori no okina monogatari kai 竹取翁物語解 apud Kawazoe.^[30]
32. Sojaku (1968). 四辻善成 「河海抄」. In Tamagami, Takuya [in Japanese] (ed.). Shimeishō 紫明抄. Revised by Yamamoto, Ritatsu. Kadokawa shoten. p. 345. 神異経曰南方有大山長卅里昼夜火風雨不滅火中有鼠重百斤毛長三尺可為布若不净火燒之即浄号火浣布也十洲記曰大林有大獸如鼠毛長三四寸取之以為布名火浣布有垢汚唯以火燒布而良久出振之白如雪
33. Yamaguchi (2006), p. 41.
34. Berthold Laufer apud Wada (1917), pp. 141–144
35. Plinius Historia Naturalium XIX.iv, Translated by Harris Rackham　(in English), apud Maines, Rachel (2013). Asbestos and Fire: Technological Tradeoffs and the Body at Risk. Rutgers University Press. pp. 27–28. ISBN 9780813570235.
36. By Albertus Magnus (d. 1280), cf. infra.）
37. Wada (1917), p. 141.
38. d'Herbelot. Vol. 3 (1778) "Samandar [sic.]", p. 182
39. Marco Polo (1921). "Ch. XLII. Of the Province of Chingintalas". The Book of Ser Marco Polo: The Venetian. Vol. 1. Translated by Henry Yule. London: J. Murray. p. 216, n6.
40. Needham (1959), pp. 656–658.
41. Muḥammad ibn Mūsá Damīrī (1920). "as-Smandal [The phenix]". Ad-Damîrí's Ḥayāt Al-ḥayawān, a Zoological Lexicon. Vol. 2. Translated by Atmaram Sadashiv G. Jayakar. London: Luzac. pp. 79–81.
42. Polo & Yule tr. (1921), pp. 212–213.
43. Wada (1917), p. 152.
44. Yuanwu Keqin (2001). Gendaigo yaku Hekiganroku 現代語訳　碧巌録. Vol. 2. Iwanami shoten. p. 445. ISBN 978-4-00-002057-2.
45. "Book 26 Yan zhou 巻二六・炎洲". Yunji Qiqian 雲笈七籤 (in Chinese) – via Wikisource.
46. Jōfuku (1982), pp. 193–196.
47. Berthold Laufer apud Wada (1917), p. 139
48. Wada (1917), pp. 138–139.
49. Needham (1959), pp. 656–656.
50. "Aristotle's History of Animals". Edinburgh Review. 160 (328): 470. October 1884.
51. Theophrastus, de Igne §60, apud Edinburgh Review (Oct 1884).^[50]
52. Baldrian-Robertson, Robert H. S. (June 1963). "'Perlite' and Palygorskite in Theophrastus". The Classical Review. New Series. 13 (2): 132. doi:10.1017/S0009840X00215138. JSTOR 706684.
53. Theophrastus discussed salamander as a fiery creature,^[51] Theophrastus (without connection to the creature) also describes a mineral from Skapte Hyle like rotten wood (de Lapidibus "On Stones", Ch. II.17), which can be lit but will not be consumed, thought to refer to asbestos by Nathaniel Fish Moore, but interpreted as lignite by translators Carey and Richards (1956), and identified as palygorskite by Robert H. S. Robertson (1963).^[52]
54. Needham, 2: 554
55. Needham (1959), p. 656: "Theophrastus in the 4th century [BC] did not know of asbestos; neither did Chi Yen". Here, Chi Yen (pinyin: Ji Yan; 計𥓋) aka Chi Jan (Ji Ren; 計燃), and in Needham's volume 2, otherwise known as Chi Ni Tzu (Ji Nizi; 計倪子).^[54]
56. Needham (1959), p. 656.
57. Yamaguchi (2006), p. 36.
58. Needham (1959), p. 657.
59. Yan Zhitui (2021). Kroll, Paul W. (ed.). Family Instructions for the Yan Clan and Other Works by Yan Zhitui (531–590s) 顔之推集. Translated by Xiaofei Tian. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. endnote 421. ISBN 9781501503139.
60. Chang Yen-yüan/Zhang Yanyuan (1954). "Li tai ming hua chi/Lidai minghua ji" 歷代名畫記. Some T'ang and Pre-T'ang Texts on Chinese Painting. Sinica Leidensia 8. Vol. 1. Translated by Acker, William Reynolds Beal. E. J. Brill. p. 175. ISBN 978-90-04-48888-5.
61. Xu Fuguan (2005). Zhōngguó rénxìnglùn shǐ 中国人性论史. Huádōng shīfàn dàxué chūbǎn shè. p. 257. ISBN 9787561744437.
62. Sen, Tansen (2017). India, China, and the World: A Connected History. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 170. ISBN 9781442220928.
63. Komine, Kazuaki [in Japanese]; Kim Yong-soon (2017). Higashi Ajia no bungakuken 東アジアの文学圏. Kasama shoin. p. 41. ISBN 9784305708816.
64. Chen, Haitao; Liu, Huiqin (2006). Láizì wénmíng shízìlù kǒu de mínzú: Táng dài rù huá sù tè rén yánjiū 来自文明十字路口的民族: 唐代入华粟特人研究 [A people from the crossroads of civilization: A study of the Sogdians who came to China during the Tang dynasty]. Shāngwù yìn shūguǎn =Commercial Press. p. 73. ISBN 9787100046756.
65. Enoki, Kazuo [in Japanese] (1993). Enoki Kazuo zenshū 榎一雄著作集. Vol. 3. Kyūko shoin. p. 25. ISBN 978-4-7629-2443-9.
66. Li Shizhen (1596). "Metals&Stones 3 §Bù huī mù" 金石之三 不灰木 . Bencao Gangmu 本草綱目 – via Wikisource.
67. Li Shizhen (2021a). "09-14 Bu hui mu 不灰木 , asbestos". Ben Cao Gang Mu, Volume II: Waters, Fires, Soils, Metals, Jades, Stones, Minerals, Salts. Translated by Paul U. Unschuld. Univ of California Press. pp. 516–517. ISBN 9780520976979.
68. Li Shizhen (1929). "Metals&Stones Chapter 9 §Fuhaimoku" 石部第九卷 不灰木. Tōchū kokuyaku Honzō kōmoku 頭註国訳本草綱目. Vol. 3. Translated by Suzuki, Shinkai. Shunyōdō. pp. 402–403.
69. Hua, Buell & Unschuld (2015), s.v. "Dong　wu　cheng 東武城", p. 92

Bibliography

• Jōfuku, Isamu [in Japanese] (1982). "Kakanpu saisetsu" 火浣布再説 [Restatement of 'Kakampu' (fireproof cloth)]. Journal of history of science, Japan. Series II. 21 (144): 193–200.
• Nakajima, Wakako (2016). "Heian jidai no nezumi no shosō: kaii uranai no haikei" 平安時代の鼠の諸相 　─怪異占の背景─ (PDF). Sapporo kokugo kenkyū. 21: 33–76. doi:10.32150/00007502.
• Needham, Joseph (1959). "Asbestos". Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Cambridge University Press. pp. 655–. ISBN 9780521058018.
• Okutsu, Haruo (1992). "Abe no miushi no ningenzō: hinezumi no kawagoromo no seiritsu" 阿倍御主人の人間像―火鼠の裘の成立. Kokubungaku nenji betsu ronbunshū: Chūko dai-2 bu 国文学年次別論文集: 中古 第2部. Hōbun shuppan. pp. 40–46.
  • Okutsu, Haruo, in Tokushima Bunri Daigaku bungaku ronsō 徳島文理大学文学論叢』9 March 1992 (original publication)
• Wada, Kiyoshi [in Japanese] (1917). "Berutorudo Rauferu shi 'Ishiwata to hinezumi: tōzai zokuden no hikaku kenkyū'" ベルトルド・ラウフェル氏〈石綿と火鼠：東西俗伝の比較研究〉 (PDF). The Toyo-gakuho 東洋学報. 7 (1): 137–153. (@Tōyō Bunko repository)
• Yamaguchi, Hiroshi [in Japanese] (2006). Heian kizoku no Shiruku Rōdō 平安貴族のシルクロード. Kadokawa Gakugei Shuppan. ISBN 9784047033979.