Eugene Jacques Bullard (born Eugene James Bullard; October 9, 1895 – October 12, 1961) was one of the first African-American military pilots,[1][2] although Bullard flew for France, not the United States. Bullard was one of the few black combat pilots during World War I, along with William Robinson Clarke, a Jamaican who flew for the Royal Flying Corps, Domenico Mondelli [it] from Italy, and Ahmet Ali Çelikten of the Ottoman Empire. Also a boxer and a jazz musician, he was called "L'Hirondelle noire" in French (literally "Black Swallow").
"All Blood Runs Red", a biography of Bullard by Phil Keith and Tom Clavin, was published in 2019 by Hanover Square Press.
Early life
Bullard was born in Columbus, Georgia, the seventh of 10 children born to William (Octave) Bullard, a Black man from Stewart County, Georgia, and Josephine ("Yokalee") Thomas, a Black woman said to be of African American and Indigenous (Muscogee Creek) heritage.[3] His paternal ancestors had been enslaved in Georgia and Virginia according to U.S. census records, and his father was born on a property owned by Wiley Bullard, a slave owning planter in Stewart County.[4][5][6][7] Bullard attended the 28th Street School in Columbus from 1901 to 1906 completing the 5th Grade.[8]
During his youth, he suffered the trauma of watching a white mob attempt to lynch his father over a workplace dispute. Despite the rampant racism of Jim Crow-era Georgia, his father continued to voice the conviction that African-Americans had to maintain their dignity and self-respect in the face of the white prejudice.[9] Despite this, Bullard became enamored with his father's stories of France where slavery had been abolished and blacks were treated the same as whites. When he reached his 11th birthday, Bullard ran away from home with the intent of getting to France. Stopping in Atlanta, he joined a British clan of gypsies known by the surname of Stanley and traveled throughout Georgia tending their horses and learning to race. It was the Stanleys who told him how the racial barriers did not exist in Britain and reset his determination to now get to the United Kingdom.[10]
Disheartened that the Stanleys were not scheduled to return to the United Kingdom, Bullard found work with the Turner family in Dawson, Georgia. Because he was hard-working as a stable boy, young Bullard won the Turners' affection and was asked to ride as their jockey in the 1911 County Fair races.[11] In 1912, he made his way to Norfolk, Virginia where he stowed away on the German freighter Marta Russ,[12] hoping to escape racial discrimination. Bullard arrived at Aberdeen, Scotland and made his way first to Glasgow and then London where he boxed and performed slapstick in the FreedmanPickaninnies, an African-American troupe.[12] While in London, he trained under the then-famous boxer Dixie Kid who arranged for him to fight in Paris. As a result of that visit to Paris, he decided to settle in France. He continued to box in Paris and also worked in a music hall until the start of World War I.
As for the Americans and other volunteers, they were allowed to transfer to the Metropolitan French Army units, including the 170th French Infantry Regiment. The 170th had a reputation of crack troops, being nicknamed Les Hirondelles de la Mort (in English, 'The Swallows of Death').[19] Bullard opted to serve in the 170th Infantry Regiment and the 170 military insignia is displayed on his uniform collar. In the beginning of 1916, the 170th Infantry along with the 48th French Infantry Division [fr], to which the regiment belonged from February 1915 to December 1916, was sent to Verdun. During his convalescence, Bullard was cited for acts of valor at the orders of the regiment on July 3, 1917, and was awarded the croix de guerre.
Like many other American aviators, Bullard hoped to join the famous squadron Escadrille Americaine N.124, the Lafayette Escadrille, but after enrolling 38 American pilots in the spring and summer of 1916, it stopped accepting applicants. After further training at Avord, Bullard[22] joined 269 American aviators at the Lafayette Flying Corps on November 15, 1916,[23] which was a designation for all American pilots who served with the French Air Service, rather than the name of a specific unit.[24] American volunteers flew with French pilots in different pursuit and bomber/reconnaissance aero squadrons on the Western Front. Edmund L. Gros, who facilitated the incorporation of American pilots in the French Air Service, listed in the October 1917 issue of Flying, an official publication of the Aero Club of America, Bullard's name is on the member roster of the Lafayette Flying Corps.[25]
On June 28, 1917, Bullard was promoted to corporal.[13] On August 27, he was assigned to Escadrille N.93 (French: Escadrille SPA 93), based at Beauzée-sur-Aire south of Verdun, where he stayed until September 13.[26] The squadron was equipped with Nieuport and Spad aircraft that displayed a flying stork as the squadron insignia. Bullard's service record also includes Squadron N.85 (French: Escadrille SPA 85), September 13, 1917 – November 11, 1917, which had a bull insignia.[27][28] He took part in over twenty combat missions, and he is sometimes credited with shooting down one or two German aircraft (sources differ).[16] However, the French authorities could not confirm Bullard's victories.[29]
When the United States entered the war, the United States Army Air Service convened a medical board to recruit Americans serving in the Lafayette Flying Corps for the Air Service of the American Expeditionary Forces. Bullard went through the medical examination, but he was not accepted, as only white pilots were chosen.[12] Some time later, while on a short break from duty in Paris, Bullard allegedly got into an argument with a French commissioned officer and was punished by being transferred to the service battalion of the French 170th Infantry Regiment in January 1918.[16] He served beyond the Armistice, not being discharged until October 24, 1919.[15]
Bullard found work for four years as a jazz drummer in a nightclub named "Zelli's", which was owned by Joe Zelli. Bullard worked with Robert Henri, a lawyer and friend, to secure a club license, which allowed Zelli's to stay open past midnight. This led to Zelli's becoming the most celebrated nightclub in Montmartre, as most other area cabarets still closed at midnight.[30] Following his time at Zelli's, Bullard departed for Alexandria, Egypt where he performed with a jazz ensemble at Hotel Claridge and fought two prize fights.[30] He also hired musicians for private parties with Paris' social elites, worked as a masseur, and an exercise trainer. Bullard later managed a nightclub "Le Grand Duc", where he hired the American poet Langston Hughes.[30] Around 1928, Bullard was able to buy "Le Grand Duc" from Ada "Bricktop" Smith.[citation needed] As a popular jazz venue, "Le Grand Duc" gained him many famous friends, including Josephine Baker, Louis Armstrong, Langston Hughes, and French flying ace Charles Nungesser. He eventually became the owner of another nightclub, "L'Escadrille". Bullard's Montmartre fame was such that Ernest Hemingway based a minor character on Bullard in "The Sun Also Rises."[30]
On 17 July 1923, he married Marcelle Eugénie Henriette Straumann, (b. 8 July 1901) a milliner from Paris' second arrondissement.[31][32] The marriage ended in divorce on 5 December 1935, with Straumann abandoning custody of their two surviving children, Jacqueline Ginette and Lolita Joséphine, to Bullard upon her departure.
When World War II began in September 1939, Bullard, who also spoke German, agreed to a request from the French government to spy on the German citizens who still frequented his nightclub.
World War II
Following the German invasion of France in May 1940, Bullard volunteered and served with the 51st Infantry Regiment (French: 51e Régiment d'Infanterie) in defending Orléans on June 15, 1940. Bullard was wounded, but he escaped to neutral Spain, and in July 1940 he returned to the United States.
Bullard spent some time in a New York hospital and never fully recovered from his wound. Moreover, he found the fame he enjoyed in France had not followed him to the United States. He worked as a perfume salesman, a security guard, and as an interpreter for Louis Armstrong, but a back injury severely restricted him. In 1945, he attempted to regain his nightclub in Paris, but it had been destroyed during the war. He received a financial settlement from the French government and was able to buy an apartment in Harlem, New York City.
In 1949, a concert held by Black entertainer and activist Paul Robeson in Peekskill, New York to benefit the Civil Rights Congress resulted in the Peekskill riots. These were caused in part by members of the local Veterans of Foreign Wars and American Legion posts, who considered Robeson a communist sympathizer.[33] The concert was scheduled to take place on August 27 at Lakeland Acres, north of Peekskill. Before Robeson arrived, however, a mob attacked the concert-goers with baseball bats and stones. Thirteen people were seriously injured before police put an end to it. The concert was then postponed until September 4.[34] The rescheduled concert took place without incident, but as concert-goers drove away, they passed through long lines of hostile locals, who threw rocks through their windshields.
Bullard was among those attacked after the concert. He was knocked to the ground and beaten by an angry mob, which included members of the state and local law enforcement. The attack was captured on film and can be seen in the 1970s documentary The Tallest Tree in Our Forest and the Oscar-winning documentary narrated by Sidney Poitier, Paul Robeson: Tribute to an Artist. None of the assailants were prosecuted. Graphic pictures of Bullard being beaten by two policemen, a state trooper, and a concert goer were published in Susan Robeson's biography of her grandfather, The Whole World in His Hands: a Pictorial Biography of Paul Robeson.[33]
Later life and death
In the 1950s, Bullard was a relative stranger in his own homeland. His daughters had married, and he lived alone in his apartment, which was decorated with pictures of his famous friends and a framed case containing his 14 French war medals. His final job was as an elevator operator at the Rockefeller Center, where his fame as the "Black Swallow of Death" was unknown. On December 22, 1959, he was interviewed on NBC's Today Show by Dave Garroway and received hundreds of letters from viewers. Bullard wore his elevator operator uniform during the interview.
Bullard died in New York City of stomach cancer on October 12, 1961, at the age of 66.[1] He was buried with military honors in the French War Veterans' section of Flushing Cemetery in the New York City borough of Queens. His friend Louis Armstrong is buried in the same cemetery.
Honors
Bullard received 14 decorations and medals from the government of France.[15] In 1954, the French government invited Bullard to Paris to be one of the three men chosen to rekindle the everlasting flame at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier under the Arc de Triomphe.[12] In 1959, he was made a Chevalier (Knight) of the Légion d'honneur[12] by GeneralCharles de Gaulle, who called Bullard a "véritable héros français" ("true French hero"). He also was awarded the Médaille militaire, another high military distinction.[35]
In 1989 he was posthumously inducted into the inaugural class of the Georgia Aviation Hall of Fame.[36] On August 23, 1994 – 33 years after his death, and 77 years to the day after the physical that should have allowed him to fly for his own country – Bullard was posthumously commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Air Force.[12]
Médaille commémorative des services volontaires de la France libre (Voluntary Service to Free France)
Médaille des volontaires américains avec l'Armée Française (American Volunteer with French Army Medal)
In addition to the above awards, Bullard also received the French Pilot's Badge and the fourragere unit award.
Note – Bullard was posthumously eligible for the World War I Victory Medal (United States) as he was posthumously commissioned an officer in the United States Army with a date of rank which fell during the eligibility period of the medal.
In popular culture
In 1972, Bullard's exploits as a pilot were retold in a biography, The Black Swallow of Death by Patrick Carisella and James Ryan.[39] He is also the subject of the nonfiction young adult memoir Eugene Bullard: World's First Black Fighter Pilot by Larry Greenly.[40]
The 2006 movie Flyboys loosely portrays a fictionalization of Bullard, called 'Eugene Skinner' played by British actor Abdul Salis.
In 2012–2014, the French writer Claude Ribbe wrote a book on Bullard[41] and made a television documentary.[42]
^Craig Lloyd, Columbus State University (November 19, 2002). "Eugene Bullard (1895–1961)". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on April 11, 2013. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
^ Keith, P., Clavin, T. (2019). All Blood Runs Red: The Legendary Life of Eugene Bullard – Boxer, Pilot, Soldier, Spy. Canada: Harlequin. [page needed]
^ Keith, P., Clavin, T. (2019). All Blood Runs Red: The Legendary Life of Eugene Bullard – Boxer, Pilot, Soldier, Spy. Canada: Harlequin. [ISBN missing]
^ abcd"Bullard James Eugene". www.memoiredeshommes.sga.defense.gouv.fr. Secrétariat Général pour l'Administration – Ministère de la Défense: Mémoire des hommes. pp. 1–2. Retrieved June 27, 2013.
^ abPorch, Douglas (2010). The French Foreign Legion: A Complete History of the Legendary Fighting Force. New York: Skyhorse Publishing.[ISBN missing]
^ abcdeCarnes, Mark C. American National Biography. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, p. 53–55.[ISBN missing]
^ abcdSutherland, Jonathan. African Americans at War: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2004, Vol. 1, pp. 86–87.[ISBN missing]
^"Ferdinand Capdevielle". American Volunteers in the French Foreign Legion, 1914–1917. www.scuttlebuttsmallchow.com. Archived from the original on 27 April 2012. Retrieved 1 July 2013.
^ abVenzon, Anne Cipriano. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclopedia. New York: Garland Pub, 1995, p. 110.[ISBN missing]
^Hall, James Norman, Charles Nordhoff, and Edgar G. Hamilton. The Lafayette Flying Corps. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920, Volume II, p. 324.
^Gordon, Dennis. The Lafayette Flying Corps: The American Volunteers in the French Air Service in World War I. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Pub, 2000, pp. 78–79.[ISBN missing]
^Sloan, James J. Wings of Honor, American Airmen in World War I: A Compilation of All United States Pilots, Observers, Gunners and Mechanics Who Flew against the Enemy in the War of 1914–1918. Atglen, Pa: Schiffer Military/Aviation History Pub, 1994, p. 64. [ISBN missing]
^Hall, James Norman, Charles Nordhoff, and Edgar G. Hamilton. The Lafayette Flying Corps. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1920, Volume II, p. 330.[ISBN missing]
^Bailey, Frank W., and Christophe Cony. French Air Service War Chronology, 1914–1918: Day-to-Day Claims and Losses by French Fighter, Bomber and Two-Seat Pilots on the Western Front. London: Grub Street, 2001.[ISBN missing][page needed]
^ abcdLloyd, Craig (2006). Eugene Bullard, Black Expatriate in Jazz-Age Paris. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press. pp. 77–79, 90–92. ISBN0-8203-2192-3.
^Naissances 1901 Paris IIème (in French), vol. Acte 511, Archives de Paris cote V4E 8135 du 2 juillet 1901 (acte n° 498) au 30 août 1901 (acte n° 645): Mairie de Paris 2ème arrondissement, 1901, p. 4{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^Mariages 1923 Paris Xème (in French), vol. Acte 1263, Archives de Paris cote 10M 397 du 9 juillet 1923 (acte n° 1215) au 4 août 1923 (acte n° 1399): Mairie de Paris 10ème arrondissement, 1923, p. 8{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ abRobeson, Susan. The Whole World in His Hands: A Pictorial Biography of Paul Robeson. Secaucus, N.J.: Citadel Press, 1981. Chapter 5, The Politics of Persecution, p. 181–183.
^Ford, Carin T. Paul Robeson: "I Want to Make Freedom Ring". Berkeley Heights, New Jersey: Enslow, 2008. Chapter 9, pp. 97–98.
^"Enshrinee Eugene Bullard". nationalaviation.org. National Aviation Hall of Fame. Retrieved 30 January 2023.
^Carisella, P. J., and James W. Ryan. The Black Swallow of Death: The Incredible Story of Eugene Jacques Bullard, the World's First Black Combat Aviator. Boston: Marlborough House; distributed by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1972.
^Jean Damu (8 February 2012). "Red tails in the sunset". San Francisco Bay View. Retrieved 17 February 2019. Meanwhile Howard's character, Col. A.J. Bullard – a nice tip of the pilot's cap to Eugene Bullard, a Black pilot who flew for the Lafayette Esquadrille during WWI – is a thinly disguised representation of the Tuskegee Airmens' primary leader, Lt. Col. (later Gen.) Benjamin O. Davis.
Further reading
Carisella, P. J., and James W. Ryan. The Black Swallow of Death: The Incredible Story of Eugene Jacques Bullard, the World's First Black Combat Aviator. Boston: Marlborough House; distributed by Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1972.
Cockfield, Jamie. All Blood Runs Red . American Heritage, Vol. 46, No. 1, February–March 1995.
Greenly, Larry W. Eugene Bullard: World's First Black Fighter Pilot. Montgomery, Alabama: NewSouth Books, 2013. ISBN978-1-58838-280-1
Gordon, Dennis. The Lafayette Flying Corps: The American Volunteers in the French Air Service in World War I. Atglen, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Military/Aviation History Pub, 2000. ISBN9780764311086
Harris, Henry Scott. All Blood Runs Red: Life and Legends of Eugene Jacques Bullard: First Black American Military Aviator. NOOK Book (eBook): eBookIt, 2012. ISBN9781456612993
Jouineau, André. Officers and Soldiers of the French Army 1918: 1915 to Victory. Paris: Histoire & Collections, 2008.
Lloyd, Craig. Eugene Bullard: Black Expatriate in Jazz Age Paris. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 2000. ISBN0-8203-2192-3
Mason, Herbert Molloy Jr. High Flew the Falcons: The French Aces of World War I. New York: J.B. Lippincott Company, 1965.
Ribbe, ClaudeEugène Bullard: récit. Paris, Le Cherche Midi, 2012.
Sloan, James J. Wings of Honor, American Airmen in World War I: A Compilation of All United States Pilots, Observers, Gunners and Mechanics Who Flew against the Enemy in the War of 1914–1918. Atglen, Pa: Schiffer Military/Aviation History Pub, 1994.
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