The Convention on Cluster Munitions (CCM) is an international treaty that prohibits all use, transfer, production, and stockpiling of cluster munitions, a type of explosive weapon which scatters submunitions ("bomblets") over an area. Additionally, the convention establishes a framework to support victim assistance, clearance of contaminated sites, risk reduction education, and stockpile destruction. The convention was adopted on 30 May 2008 in Dublin,[6] and was opened for signature on 3 December 2008 in Oslo. It entered into force on 1 August 2010, six months after it was ratified by 30 states.[2] As of December 2023, a total of 124 states are committed to the goal of the convention, with 112 states that have ratified it, and 12 states that have signed the convention but not yet ratified it.[3]a
Countries that ratify the convention will be obliged "never under any circumstances to":[7]
Use cluster munitions;
Develop, produce, otherwise acquire, stockpile, retain or transfer to anyone, directly or indirectly, cluster munitions;
Assist, encourage or induce anyone to engage in any activity prohibited to a State Party under this Convention.
The treaty allows certain types of weapons with submunitions that do not have the indiscriminate area effects or pose the same unexploded ordnance risks as cluster munitions. Permitted weapons must contain fewer than ten submunitions, and each must weigh more than 4 kilograms (8.8 lb), and each submunition must have the capability to detect and engage a single target object and contain electronic self-destruct and self-deactivation mechanisms.[8] Weapons containing submunitions which all individually weigh at least 20 kg (44 lb) are also excluded.[9] A limited number of prohibited weapons and submunitions can be acquired and kept for training in, and development of, detection, clearance and destruction techniques and counter-measures.
History
The impetus for the treaty, like that of the 1997 Ottawa Treaty to limit landmines, has been concern over the severe damage and risks to civilians from explosive weapons during and long after attacks. A varying proportion of submunitions dispersed by cluster bombs fail to explode on impact and can lie unexploded for years until disturbed. The sometimes brightly-colored munitions are not camouflaged, but have been compared to toys or Easter eggs, attracting children at play.[10][11] Human rights activists claim that one in four casualties resulting from submunitions that fail to explode on impact are children, who often pick up and play with the explosive canisters well after the conflict has ended.[12] The 2006 Lebanon War provided momentum for the campaign to ban cluster bombs. The United Nations estimated that up to 40% of Israeli cluster bomblets failed to explode on impact.[13] Norway organized the independent Oslo Process after discussions at the traditional disarmament forum in Geneva fell through in November 2006.[14]
The cluster munitions ban process, also known as the Oslo Process, began in February 2007 in Oslo. At this time, 46 nations issued the "Oslo Declaration", committing themselves to:
Conclude by 2008 a legally binding international instrument that prohibits the use and stockpiling of cluster munitions that cause unacceptable harm to civilians and secure adequate provision of care and rehabilitation to survivors and clearance of contaminated areas.[15][16]
The Oslo Process held meetings in Lima in May 2007 and Vienna in December 2007. In February 2008, 79 countries adopted the "Wellington Declaration", setting forth the principles to be included in the convention.[17]
Adoption
Delegates from 107 nations agreed to the final draft of the treaty at the end of a ten-day meeting held in May 2008 in Dublin, Ireland.[18] Its text was formally adopted on 30 May 2008 by 107 nations,[19] including 7 of the 14 countries that have used cluster bombs and 17 of the 34 countries that have produced them.[20]
The treaty was opposed by a number of countries that produce or stockpile significant quantities of cluster munitions, including China, Russia, the United States, India, Israel, Pakistan and Brazil.[12] The U.S. has acknowledged humanitarian concerns about the use of cluster munitions, but insisted that the proper venue for a discussion of cluster munitions was the forum attached to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, which includes all major military powers.[21] The U.S. has further stated that the development and introduction of "smart" cluster munitions, where each submunition contains its own targeting and guidance system as well as an auto-self-destruct mechanism, means that the problematic munitions are being moved away from, in any case.[12] In 2006, Barack Obama voted to support a legislative measure to limit use of the bombs, while his general election opponent John McCain and his primary opponent Hillary Clinton both voted against it.[22] In 2008, the Pentagon pledged not to use any cluster munitions with a failure rate higher than 1 percent after 2018. However, the U.S. did not impose an outright ban.[23][24]
The treaty allows certain types of weapons with submunitions that do not have the indiscriminate area effects or pose the same unexploded ordnance risks as the prohibited weapons. These must contain no more than nine submunitions, and no submunition may weigh less than 4 kilograms (8.8 lb). Each submunition must have the capability to detect and engage a single target object and contain electronic self-destruct and self-deactivation devices.[8] Weapons containing submunitions which each weigh at least 20 kg (44 lb) are also excluded.[9] Australia, which supports the treaty, stated that the convention does not prohibit the SMArt 155 artillery shell that it has bought, which releases two self-guided self-destructing submunitions.[8]
In response to U.S. lobbying, and also concerns raised by diplomats from Australia, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom and others, the treaty includes a provision allowing signatory nations to cooperate militarily with non-signatory nations. This provision is designed to provide legal protections to the military personnel of signatory nations engaged in military operations with the U.S. or other non-signatory nations that might use cluster munitions.[25]David Miliband, Britain's foreign secretary, approved the use of a loophole to manoeuvre around the ban which allows the US to keep the munitions on British territory.[26]
Prior to the Dublin meeting, the United Kingdom was thought to be one of a group of nations in a pivotal role, whereby their cooperation could make or break the treaty. In an unexpected turn of events shortly before the end of the conference, Prime Minister Gordon Brown declared that the United Kingdom would withdraw all of its cluster bombs from service.[27] This was done despite intense behind-the-scenes lobbying by the U.S. and objections by British government personnel who saw utility in the weapons.[citation needed]
The CCM was opened for signature at a ceremony at Oslo City Hall on 3–4 December 2008. By the end of the ceremony, 94 states had signed the treaty, including four (Ireland, the Holy See, Sierra Leone and Norway) which had also submitted their instruments of ratification. Signatories included 21 of the 27 member-states of the European Union and 18 of the 26 countries in NATO. Among the signatories were several states affected by cluster munitions, including Laos and Lebanon.
In November 2008, ahead of the signing conference in Oslo, the European Parliament passed a resolution calling on all European Union governments to sign and ratify the convention, as several EU countries had not yet declared their intention to do so.[28] Finland had declared it would not sign,[29] having just signed the Ottawa Treaty and replaced its mine arsenal largely with cluster munitions.
Entry into force
According to article 17 of the treaty, the convention entered into force "on the first day of the sixth month after the month in which the thirtieth instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession has been deposited".[30] Since the thirtieth ratification was deposited during February 2010, the convention entered into force on 1 August 2010; by that point, 38 nations had ratified the treaty.
As the convention entered into force, UN Secretary-GeneralBan Ki-moon spoke of "not only the world's collective revulsion at these abhorrent weapons, but also the power of collaboration among governments, civil society and the United Nations to change attitudes and policies on a threat faced by all humankind".[31] A spokesman for the International Committee of the Red Cross said "These weapons are a relic of the Cold War. They are a legacy that has to be eliminated because they increasingly won't work."[32]Nobel peace prize winner Jody Williams called the convention "the most important disarmament and humanitarian convention in over a decade".[32]
Anti-cluster munitions campaigners praised the rapid progress made in the adoption of the convention, and expressed hope that even non-signatories – such as China, North Korea, Russia, and the US – would be discouraged from using the weapons by the entry into force of the convention.[33] As one of the countries that did not ratify the treaty, the United States said that cluster bombs are a legal form of weapon, and that they had a "clear military utility in combat." It also said that compared to other types of weapons, cluster bombs are less harmful to civilians.[31]
Article 11 required the first meeting of states parties to be held within 12 months of the entry into force. The first such meeting was held in Laos in November 2010.[34] There is a president, currently Swiss ambassador Félix Baumann.[35]
According to Cluster Munition Monitor 2022, the list of 16 countries that refuse to sign the convention and who produce cluster munitions included Brazil, China, Egypt, Greece, India, Iran, Israel, North Korea, Pakistan, Poland, Romania, Russia, Singapore, South Korea, Turkey and the United States.[36]
Withdrawals
On 18 July 2024, the Parliament of Lithuania decided to withdraw from the convention.[37] The Lithuanian government argued that Russia has used cluster munitions extensively during the Russian invasion of Ukraine and would not hesitate to use them in conflict with NATO.[38] The government also pointed out that of the NATO states bordering Russia, only Lithuania and Norway were parties to the convention.[37] Lithuania deposited its instrument of withdrawal from the convention on 6 September 2024, and the withdrawal will take effect on 6 March 2025 (though the convention will continue to apply in any armed conflicts that Lithuania may be engaged in at that time).[39]
^Mull, Stephen (21 May 2008). "U.S. Cluster Munitions Policy". US Department of State. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 25 May 2019. Mull at the time was U.S. Department of State Acting Assistant Secretary for Political-Military Affairs.
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada Mei 2016. Moses Misdy (lahir 14 Desember 1941) adalah seniman berkebangsaan Indonesia. Namanya dikenal secara luas melalui karya-karyanya berupa lukisan. Moses telah melakukan banyak pameran, di dalam maupun luar negeri. Dia merupakan salah satu pelopor yang mengena...
1996 novel by Gareth Roberts The topic of this article may not meet Wikipedia's notability guideline for books. Please help to demonstrate the notability of the topic by citing reliable secondary sources that are independent of the topic and provide significant coverage of it beyond a mere trivial mention. If notability cannot be shown, the article is likely to be merged, redirected, or deleted.Find sources: The English Way of Death – news · newspapers · books
Artikel ini sebatang kara, artinya tidak ada artikel lain yang memiliki pranala balik ke halaman ini.Bantulah menambah pranala ke artikel ini dari artikel yang berhubungan atau coba peralatan pencari pranala.Tag ini diberikan pada November 2022. Claudio BiaggioInformasi pribadiNama lengkap Claudio BiaggioTanggal lahir 2 Juli 1967 (umur 56)Tempat lahir Santa Rosa, ArgentinaPosisi bermain PenyerangKarier senior*Tahun Tim Tampil (Gol)1986-1988 Belgrano 1989-1990 Peñarol 1990-1992 Danubio 1...
مقاطعة طالقان شهرستان طالقان مقاطعة الإحداثيات 35°29′N 50°35′E / 35.48°N 50.58°E / 35.48; 50.58 تقسيم إداري الدولة Iran المحافظة ألبرز العاصمة طالقان النواحي Central District (Taleqan County) عدد السكان (2006) المجموع 25٬781 عدد الأسر 6354 (2016)[1] معلومات أخرى منطقة زمنية ت ...
Jordi Solé Camardons Información personalNacimiento 1959 Oliana (España) Nacionalidad EspañolaEducaciónEducación licenciatura Educado en Universidad de Barcelona Información profesionalOcupación Escritor, sociolingüista, ensayista y escritor de ciencia ficción Género Ensayo [editar datos en Wikidata] Jordi Solé Camardons (n. Oliana, Lérida; 1959) es un escritor y sociolingüista español. Es licenciado en Filología catalana por la Universidad de Barcelona, ha trabajado...
Kue Talam BawangKue Talam Bawang dari Kalimantan SelatanTempat asalIndonesiaDaerahJakartaVariasiKue talam Talam Bawang adalah salah satu variasi dari kue Talam, kue tradisional Indonesia yang terbuat dari bahan-bahan seperti tepung terigu atau tepung beras, sari kelapa, gula, daun pandan, dan bawang merah. Kue ini memiliki lapisan bawah yang lebih padat dan lapisan atas yang lebih lembut dan berpori. Nama Talam Bawang berasal dari bawang merah yang digunakan sebagai salah satu bahan dalam ado...
For other uses, see Washington Park, Chicago (disambiguation). Community area in Chicago Community area in Illinois, United StatesWashington ParkCommunity areaCommunity Area 40 - Washington ParkThe Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic is the United States' largest African American parade.StreetmapLocation within the city of ChicagoCoordinates: 41°47.4′N 87°37.2′W / 41.7900°N 87.6200°W / 41.7900; -87.6200CountryUnited StatesStateIllinoisCountyCookCityChicagoNeighborho...
يفتقر محتوى هذه المقالة إلى الاستشهاد بمصادر. فضلاً، ساهم في تطوير هذه المقالة من خلال إضافة مصادر موثوق بها. أي معلومات غير موثقة يمكن التشكيك بها وإزالتها. (أغسطس_2011) جمعي فاميلي 3 النوع فكاهي -مغامرات إخراج جعفر قاسم البلد الجزائر لغة العمل عامية جزائرية عدد المواسم 3 عد
Greek mathematician and university professor Nikolaos Ch. NikolaidisBorn1826Tripoli, GreeceDiedJuly 11, 1889Athens, GreeceNationalityGreekAlma materEvelpidonÉcole nationale des ponts et chausséesÉcole polytechniqueScientific careerFieldsMathematicsDifferential geometryInstitutionsUniversity of AthensEvelpidonDoctoral advisorsJoseph BertrandDoctoral studentsCyparissos Stephanos Nicolaos Ch. Nikolaidis (Greek: Νικόλαος Χ. Νικολαΐδης, in French Nicolas Nicolaïdès; (1...
1954 studio album by Harry BelafonteMark Twain and other Folk FavoritesStudio album by Harry BelafonteReleased1954RecordedRCA Victor's Manhattan Center and 24th Street Studios, April 9, 22 & 29 and May 13, 1954GenreVocal, calypsoLabelRCA Victor LPM1022ProducerHugo Winterhalter, Henri René, Jack Lewis, Joe CarltonHarry Belafonte chronology Mark Twain and other Folk Favorites(1954) Belafonte(1955) Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllmusic[1] Mark Twain and other...
Дворучна пилка Дворучна пилка — інструмент для різання (розпилювання) деревини. Виконується у вигляді металевої пластини, на робочій крайці якої розташовані зуби. Довжина полотна, як правило, від 1 до 4 м, також уживались пилки до 5 м завдовжки. Ручки, як правило, де...
Latvian politician This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Arturs Alberings – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2020) (Learn how a...
Concept in computer science This article appears to be a dictionary definition. Please rewrite it to present the subject from an encyclopedic point of view. (May 2023) This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Downstream software development – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2023) (Learn how a...
Melancholy PlayThe MandorlaWritten bySarah RuhlCharactersTillyFrankFrancesJoanLorenzo the UnfeelingMusicianDate premieredJune 28, 2002 (2002-06-28)Place premieredPiven TheatreEvanston, ILOriginal languageEnglishGenreComedy/DramaSettingIllinois Melancholy Play: A Contemporary Farce is a play by Sarah Ruhl that premiered in 2002 at the Piven Theatre in Evanston, Illinois. It follows the sometimes melodramatic bank teller, Tilly, and her emotion-driven adventure with several other...
Cambodian political party Grassroots Democratic Party គណបក្សប្រជាធិបតេយ្យមូលដ្ឋានPresidentYeng Virak[1]Vice PresidentSam SundeoumFoundersKem Ley[2]Yang Saing Koma[3]Sam Inn[4]Founded2 August 2015; 8 years ago (2015-08-02)Headquarters38 St. 1972, Phnom Penh, CambodiaMembership (2018)10,000[5]IdeologyGrassroots democracy[6]Social democracy[6]Social liberalism[7]...
Artikel ini sudah memiliki referensi, tetapi tidak disertai kutipan yang cukup. Anda dapat membantu mengembangkan artikel ini dengan menambahkan lebih banyak kutipan pada teks artikel. (Pelajari cara dan kapan saatnya untuk menghapus pesan templat ini) Artikel ini menggunakan URL kosong yang bisa jadi merupakan pranala mati. Mohon pertimbangkan untuk mengubahnya menjadi kutipan untuk menjaga artikel tetap dapat diverifikasi dan menggunakan gaya kutipan yang konsisten. Beberapa tempat dan perk...
English footballer (born 1996) Josh Dacres-Cogley Dacres-Cogley with Birmingham City in 2016Personal informationFull name Joshua Jacob Dacres-Cogley[1]Date of birth (1996-03-12) 12 March 1996 (age 27)[2]Place of birth Coventry, EnglandHeight 5 ft 9 in (1.74 m)[3]Position(s) Full backTeam informationCurrent team Bolton WanderersNumber 12Youth career2011–2015 Birmingham CitySenior career*Years Team Apps (Gls)2015–2021 Birmingham City 23 (0)2019–...
Big Deal:A Year as a Professional Poker Player AuthorAnthony HoldenLanguageEnglishSubjectPokerGenreNon-fictionPublication date1992ISBN0-7432-9481-5OCLC85692821LC ClassGV1251 .H65 2007Followed byBigger Deal: A Year Inside the Poker Boom Big Deal: A Year as a Professional Poker Player is a book by Anthony Holden. The book details a year Holden spent playing poker around the world, attempting to make a living, or at least a profit, from the endeavor. The book details many things ...
American publishing house Feminist PressParent companyCity University of New York (CUNY)Founded1970FounderFlorence HoweCountry of originUnited StatesHeadquarters locationB. Altman and Company BuildingNew York CityDistributionConsortium Book Sales & Distribution (US)Turnaround Publisher Services (UK)[1]Publication typesBooksOfficial websitefeministpress.org The Feminist Press (officially The Feminist Press at CUNY) is an American independent nonprofit literary publisher of feminist...