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Competitive heterogeneity is a concept from strategic management that examines why industries do not converge on one best way of doing things. In the view of strategic management scholars, the microeconomics of production and competition combine to predict that industries will be composed of identical firms offering identical products at identical prices. Deeper analyses of this topic were taken up in industrial organization economics by crossover economics/strategic-management scholars such as Harold Demsetz^[1]^[2] and Michael Porter.^[3] Demsetz argued that better-managed firms would make better products (or similar products at lower costs) than their competitors. Such firms would translate better products or lower prices (an optimal decision based on lower costs) into higher levels of demand, which would lead to revenue growth. These firms would then be larger than the more poorly managed competitors.

Porter argued that firms in an industry would cluster into strategic groups. Each group would be similar and movement between groups would be difficult and costly (barriers to mobility). Richard Rumelt^[4] and Stephen Lippman demonstrated how firms could differ in an industry in partial equilibrium-like circumstances. Richard Nelson and Sidney G. Winter^[5] discussed how firms develop differing capabilities. During this time, industrial economics focused on industry characteristics, treated the differences among firms in an industry as trivial. This was a point of contention within strategy and between strategy and economics from about 1980 to the mid-1990s.

Early in the 1990s a number of papers were published under the rubrics of the Resource-based View^[6] and Capabilities.^[7] Both approaches continue to develop. However, the RBV won the public relations war (complete with, allegedly, removing dissenting opinions from Wikipedia). The RBV argues that firms vary in their resources and resource variances lead to varying competitive positions. Capability theories, building on earlier work by Nelson and Winter and Teece,^[8] make a similar claim.

Developing ideas pioneered by Rumelt^[9] and discussed by Levinthal^[10] and Noda and Collis.^[11] Hoopes, Madsen, and Walker^[12] use the term competitive heterogeneity to describe the performance differences between close competitors. Hoopes et al. argue that the RBV is but one of many possible explanations for competitive heterogeneity. Thus, the title of their paper and special issue, "Why is there a RBV?" In addition to economics-based explanations noted above, Hoopes et al. point out that differing beliefs, preferences, and objectives lead firms pursuing similar customers to find and develop unique competitive positions.

Additionally, Hoopes et al. suggest that competitive advantage should be thought of in terms of each firm's economic contribution.^[13]^[12] Termed the V-C model, it is basically a bargaining model (see Tirole^[14]) over the surplus created by a firm's activities. A buyer and supplier bargain over the price (P) for a good that contributes a value (V) to the buyer and costs the supplier some amount (C) to produce. "Value is the price a buyer is willing to pay for a good absent competing products or services yet within budget constraints and considering other purchasing opportunities. Most work considers costs in terms of marginal cost. The good’s market price lies between value and cost. So, the buyer receives a surplus of value minus the price (V-P), and the supplier receives a profit of price minus cost (P-C). The supplier’s resources and capabilities, in turn, influence the value of the good to the buyer and/or the cost of producing it."^[12] Also see Besanko, Dranove & Shanley,;^[15] Ghemawat,;^[16] Walker;^[13] see also Postrel.^[17] Under this theory, competitive advantage is deemed to be possessed by the firm who implements largest difference between value and cost when compared to rivals. This bargaining model has been further developed extensively in Johnson's account of economic opportunity rents^[18] underpinning heterogeneous competition.

In summary, a theory of competitive heterogeneity seeks to explain why firms do not converge on a single best way of doing things as predicted by simple microeconomics. The RBV contains one approach. In recent years capability theories have expanded RBV logic. Recently, more work that focuses on heterogeneity has been published in strategy journals.

References

^ Demsetz, H (April 1973). "Industry Structure, Market Rivalry and Public Policy". Journal of Law and Economics. 16 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1086/466752. S2CID 154506488 – via JSTOR.
^ Demsetz, H. (1989). "Chapter 7". Efficiency, Competition and Policy. Cambridge MA: Basil Blackwell.
^ Porter, M. (1980). Competitive Strategy. New York: Free Press.
^ Rumelt, R. (Mar 1991). "How much does industry matter?". Strategic Management Journal. 12 (3): 167–185. doi:10.1002/smj.4250120302 – via JSTOR.
^ Nelson, R.; Winter, S. (1982). An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.
^ Peteraf, M. (Mar 1993). "The Cornerstones of Competitive Advantage: a Resource-based View". Strategic Management Journal. 14 (3): 179–191. doi:10.1002/smj.4250140303.
^ Teece, D.; Pisano, G.; Shuen, A. (Aug 1997). "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management". Strategic Management Journal. 18 (7): 509–533. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.390.9899. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0266(199708)18:7<509::AID-SMJ882>3.0.CO;2-Z. S2CID 167484845 – via JSTOR.
^ Teece, D. (Mar 1982). "Towards an Economic Theory of the Multiproduct Firm". Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization. 3 (1): 39–64. doi:10.1016/0167-2681(82)90003-8 – via Elsevier Science Direct.
^ Rumelt, R. P. (1984). "Towards a Strategic Theory of the Firm". In Lamb, R. B. (ed.). Competitive Strategic Management. Englewood Cliffs New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. 556–570.
^ Levinthal, D. A. (1995). Montgomery, C. A. (ed.). Resource-based and Evolutionary Theories of the Firm: Towards a Synthesis. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
^ Noda, T.; Collis, D. J. (August 2001). "The Evolution of Intraindustry Firm Heterogeneity: Insights from a Process Study". The Academy of Management Journal. 44 (4): 897–925. JSTOR 3069421.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hoopes, D. G.; Madsen, T. L.; Walker, G. (October 2003). "Why is there a Resource-based View? Towards a Theory of Competitive Heterogeneity". Strategic Management Journal. 24: 889–902. doi:10.1002/smj.356 – via JSTOR.
^ ^a ^b Walker, G. (2004). "Chapter 2". Modern Competitive Strategy. McGraw-Hill.
^ Tirole, J. (1988). The Theory of Industrial Organization. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. pp. 21–34.
^ Besanko, D.; Dranove, D.; Shanley, M. (1999). "Chapter 13". Economics of Strategy (2nd ed.). Wiley.
^ Ghemawhat, P. (1991). "Chapter 4". Commitment: The Dynamics of Strategy. New York: Free Press.
^ Postrel, S. "Islands of Shared Knowledge: Specialization and Mutual Understanding in Problem-solving Teams". Organization Science. 14 (3): 179–191 – via JSTOR.
^ Johnson, P. (2007). "Chapter 5 Economic Rents". Astute Competition: the Economics of Strategic Diversity. Oxford: Elsevier. pp. 99–109. ISBN 9-780080-453217.

Besanko, D., D. Dranove and M. Shanley 1999. Economics of Strategy (2nd edition). MA: John Wiley & Sons.
Demsetz, H. 1973, "Industry Structure, Market Rivalry and Public Policy," Journal of Law and Economics.
Demsetz, H. "Two systems of belief about monopoly," in H. Goldschmid, et al., eds., Industrial Concentration: The New Learning, Boston: Little Brown, 1974; (also chapter 7 in, Demsetz, Harold. Efficiency, Competition, and Policy. Cambridge MA: Basil Blackwell, 1989.)
Ghemawat, P. 1991. Commitment: The Dynamic of Strategy. New York: Free Press.
Hoopes, D.G.; Madsen, T.L.; Walker, G. (2003) Guest Editors' Introduction to the Special Issue: Why is There a Resource-Based View? Toward a Theory of Competitive Heterogeneity. Strategic Management Journal; 24, pp. 889–902.
Levinthal, Daniel A. 1995. "Strategic Management and the Exploration of Diversity." In:Resource-Based and Evolutionary Theories of the Firm: Towards a Synthesis. Montgomery, Cynthia A. (ed.) Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Nelson, R. and S. Winter. 1982. An Evolutionary Theory of Economic Change. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Noda, T. & D. J. Collis The Evolution of Intraindustry Firm Heterogeneity: Insights from a Process Study (in Special Research Forum: Change and Development Journeys into a Pluralistic World) The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 44, No. 4. (Aug., 2001), pp. 897–925.
Peteraf, M. A. (1993), "The cornerstones of competitive advantage: a resource-based view". Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 179–191
Postrel, S. 2002, Islands of shared knowledge: Specialization and mutual understanding in problem-solving teams", Organization Science, 13 (3): 303-320.
Porter, M. (1980) Competitive Strategy, Free Press, New York, 1980.
Rumelt, R. P. 1984. "Towards a Strategic Theory of the Firm." In R. B. Lamb (ed.), Competitive Strategic Management. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, pp. 556–570.
Rumelt, R. P. (1991), "How much does industry matter?". Strategic Management Journal, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 167–185
Teece, D. J. 1982. "Towards an Economic Theory of the Multiproduct firm." Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization. 3: 39-64.
Teece, D. J., G. Pisano, and A. Shuen 1994. "Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management." Strategic Management Journal.
Tirole, J. 1988. The Theory of Industrial Organization. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Walker, G. 2004. Modern Competitive Strategy (2004), McGraw-Hill.