Ajuran Sultanate

This article is about the sultanate in the Horn of Africa. For the Somali clan, see Ajuran (clan).

Ajuuraan Sultanate Dawladdii Ajuuraan (Somali) دولة الأجورانية (Arabic)
13th–14th century[1][2]–17th century
Flag shown next to the Mogadishu area on a 1576 Fernão Vaz Dourado map
Capital	Mareeg ^(initially) Qelafo Merca Mogadishu[3][4]
Common languages	Somali Arabic
Religion	Sunni Islam^(state)
Government	Monarchy
Sultan, Imam
History
• Established	13th–14th century[1][2]
• Ajuran-Portuguese battles	16th century
• Oromo invasions	16th century
• Decline	17th century
Currency	Ajuran Mogadishan
Preceded by Succeeded by Mogadishu Sultanate Tunni Sultanate Geledi Sultanate Hiraab Imamate
Today part of	Somalia Ethiopia

The Ajuran Sultanate (Somali: Saldanadda Ajuuraan, Arabic: سلطنة الأجورانية), natively referred to as Ajuuraan,^[5] and often simply Ajuran,^[6] was a medieval Muslim Empire in the Horn of Africa.^[7] Founded by Somali Sultans^[8][9] it ruled over large parts of the Horn of Africa during the Middle Ages via control over water. Its rise to prominence began during the 13th and 14th century. By the 15th century, the Ajuran were Africa's only 'Hydraulic empire'.^[10] Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Empire successfully resisted Oromo invasions from the west and fought against Portuguese incursions from the east.^[11][5][12]

The Ajuran were among the great centres of commerce in the contemporary African world.^[13] Trading routes dating from ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were strengthened and re-established, foreign trade and commerce in the coastal provinces flourished with ships sailing to and from kingdoms and empires in the Near East, East Asia, and the wider world.^[14][15] The Ajuran are believed to be the first Africans to have contact with China.^[16]

Etymology

The Ajuran Empire traces its name back to the Arabic word; إيجار (Ījārā), which means to rent or tax. A name well deserved for the exorbitant tributes paid to the Empire.^[17]

History

The Ajuran is regarded as a successor to its more influential predecessor, the Adal Sultanate.^[5] The precise origins of the Ajuran vary as they are rooted in traditional Somali folklore. It was in the 13th century the Ajuran first appeared and began gaining power. For several centuries they exerted strong political influence on the inland pastoralists, while also embracing coastal trade and infrastructure.^[18] The sultanate functioned for approximately three centuries.^[11]

Origins and the House of Garen

The House of Garen was the ruling hereditary dynasty of the Ajuran Empire.^[19][20] Its origin lies in the Garen Kingdom that during the 13th century ruled parts of the Somali Region of Ethiopia.^[21] With the migration of Somalis from the northern half of the Horn region southwards, new cultural and religious orders were introduced, influencing the administrative structure of the dynasty.^[22]

A system of governance began to evolve into an Islamic government. Through their genealogical Baraka, which came from the saint Balad (who was known to have come from outside the Kingdom).^[23][24][25]

Rise to prominence and dominance

The Ajuran gradually became a notable and respected empire.^[5] Around 1500, they rose to dominance in the interior of Banaadir region, after which they maintained a hegemony for approximately 150 years. The introduction of a great variety of technological innovations to the Somali territories are attributed to the empire, such as systems of dykes and dams on the Shabelle river, large homes and stone fortifications along with the creation of large stone wells, many of which were still in use well into the 20th century. Notably, the Ajuran were the first to impose a regular system of tribute on the surrounding population. The empire fielded a powerful army, which may have employed firearms towards the end of its dominant period around 1650.^[26] As a 'water dynasty', the Ajuran monopolized the Jubba and Shabelle rivers through hydraulic engineering.^[10]

Historically, the Sultanate of Mogadishu was confined by the Adal Sultanate in the north.^[27][28] Throughout the Middle Ages, the Ajurans routinely aligned themselves politically with the Adalites.^[29][30] Described as one country by Ibn Battuta, a journey to Mogadishu from the town of Zeila took him eight weeks to complete.^[31][32] The Ajuran Empire's sphere of influence in the Horn of Africa was among the largest in the region.^[33]

A 16th century map by Jan Huyghen^[34]

At the height of its reach, the empire covered most of southern Somalia as well as eastern Ethiopia,^[14][35] with its domain at one point extending from Hafun in the north to Kismayo in the south, and Qelafo in the west.^[36][37][38]

Ajuran-Portuguese battles

Main article: Somali-Portuguese conflicts

The European Age of Discovery brought Europe's then superpower the Portuguese Empire to the coast of East Africa, which enjoyed a flourishing trade with foreign nations. The southeastern city-states of Kilwa, Mombasa, Malindi, Pate and Lamu were all systematically sacked and plundered by the Portuguese.^[39] Tristão da Cunha then set his eyes on Ajuran territory, where the Battle of Barawa was fought.^[40] After a long period of engagement, the Portuguese soldiers burned the city and looted it.^[41] Fierce resistance by the local populace and soldiers resulted in the failure of the Portuguese to permanently occupy the city, and the inhabitants who had fled to the interior eventually returned and rebuilt the city.^[42][43][44]

The Ottomans regularly aided the Ajurans in their struggles with the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean.

After Barawa, Tristão set sail for Mogadishu, the richest city on the East African coast.^[45][46] Word had spread of what had happened in Barawa, and a large troop mobilization took place. Many horsemen, soldiers and battleships in defense positions were guarding the city. Nevertheless, Tristão opted to storm and attempt to conquer the city, although every officer and soldier in his army opposed this, fearing certain defeat if they were to engage their opponents in battle. Tristão heeded their advice and sailed for Socotra instead.^[47][48]

During the Battle of Barawa, Tristão da Cunha was wounded and requested to be knighted by Albuquerque.^[49]

Over the next decades tensions remained high and the increased contact between Somali sailors and Ottoman corsairs worried the Portuguese who sent a punitive expedition under João de Sepúlveda, where he bombarded Mogadishu and captured Turkish vessels, compelling its ruler to sign a peace deal with the Portuguese. Barawa would also sign peace with the Portuguese after being sacked.^[50][51] The Ottoman-Somali cooperation against the Portuguese on the Indian Ocean reached a high point in the 1580s when Ajuran clients of the coastal cities began to cooperate with the Arabs and Swahilis under Portuguese rule and sent an envoy to the Turkish corsair Mir Ali Bey for a joint expedition against the Portuguese. He agreed and was joined by a Somali fleet in order to attack the Portuguese colonies in Southeast Africa.^[52] The Somali-Ottoman offensive managed to drive out the Portuguese from several important cities such as Pate, Mombasa and Kilwa. However, the Portuguese governor sent envoys to Portuguese India requesting a large Portuguese fleet. This request was answered and it reversed the previous offensive of the Muslims into one of defense. The Portuguese armada managed to re-take most of the lost cities and began punishing their leaders, but they refrained from attacking Mogadishu, securing the city's autonomy in the Indian Ocean.^[53][54] The Ottoman Empire would remain an economic partner.^[14] Throughout the 16th and 17th centuries the Ajurans successively defied Portuguese hegemony on the Indian Ocean by employing a new coinage which followed the Ottoman pattern, thus proclaiming an attitude of economic independence in regard to the Portuguese.^{[55][56][57][58]}

In 1698, the Portuguese in Mombasa surrendered to a joint Somali-Omani force.^[59]

Muslim migrations

The late 15th and 17th centuries saw the arrival of Muslim families from Arabia, Persia, India and Spain to the Ajuran realm of territories, the majority of whom settled in the coastal provinces. Some migrated because of the instability in their respective regions, as was the case with the Hadhrami families from Yemen and the Muslims from Spain fleeing the Inquisition.^[60][61] Others came to conduct business or for religious purposes. Due to their strong tradition in religious learning, the new Muslim communities also enjoyed high status among the Somali ruling elite and commoners.^[62][63]

Bale

The most famous Somali scholar of Islam from the Ajuraan period is Sheikh Hussein, who was born in Merca, one of the power jurisdiction and cultural centers of the Ajuran Empire.^[64] He is credited with converting the Sidamo people living in the area of what is now the Bale Province, Ethiopia to Islam.^[65] He is also credited with establishing the Sultanate of Bale. Despite the Bale Sultanate not being directly under Ajuran rule, the two kingdoms were deeply connected and Bale was heavily influenced by Ajuran.^[66][67]

His tomb lies in the town of Sheikh Hussein in what is considered the most sacred place in the country for Ethiopian Muslims, in particular those of Oromo ethnic descent.^[68][69]

The tomb of Sheikh Hussein

Gaal Madow

In the mid-17th century, the Oromo people collectively began expanding from their homeland towards the southern Somali coast at a time when the Ajurans were at the height of their power.^[70] The Garen rulers conducted several military expeditions known as the Gaal Madow Wars on the Oromo invaders, converting those that were captured to Islam.^{[71][72][73][74]}

Decline

The Ajuran Empire slowly declined in power at the end of the 17th century. In this period the rulers of the empire abandoned Sharia, became oppressive and enacted heavy taxation.^[11] The dethronement of the Muzaffar clients in Mogadishu and other coastal cities by the Abgaal imam who then established the Hiraab Imamate taking residence in Mogadishu was a significant setback,^[75] and the defeat of the Silis Kingdom by a former Ajuran general in the interior of the state, Ibrahim Adeer, who established the Gobroon dynasty.^[76]

Taxation and the practice of primae noctis were the main catalysts for the revolts against Ajuran rulers.^[77] The loss of port cities and fertile farms meant that much needed sources of revenue were lost to the rebels.^[78] Somali maritime enterprise significantly declined after the collapse of the Ajuran Empire. However, other polities such as the Isaaq Sultanate, Geledi Sultanate, Majeerteen Sultanate, Sultanate of Hobyo, and the Dervish state in a way ensured its continuity.^[79]

By 1700, there was effectively no trace of Ajuran polity left in Baanadir.^[26]

Administration

See also: Somali aristocratic and court titles

The city of Merca was a prominent administrative center of the Ajurans

The Ajuran nobility used many of the typical Somali aristocratic and court titles, with the Garen rulers styled Imam.^[80] These leaders were the empire's highest authority, and counted multiple Sultans, Emirs, and Kings as clients or vassals. The Garen rulers also had seasonal palaces in Mareeg, Qelafo and Merca, important cities in the Empire were Mogadishu and Barawa. The state religion was Islam, and thus law was based on Sharia.^[81][82][83]

1. Imam – Head of State^[84]
2. Emir – Commander of the armed forces and navy
3. Na'ibs – Viceroys^[85]
4. Wazirs – Tax and revenue collectors
5. Qadis – Chief Judges

The House of Gareen Known members
Ajuran Baydan Badbeydan Walmuge Sanle Sanle Mage Toore Dhaqsoore

Citizenry

Through their control of the region's wells, the Garen rulers effectively held a monopoly over their nomadic subjects as they were the only hydraulic empire in Africa during their reign. Large wells made out of limestone were constructed throughout the state, which attracted Somali and Oromo nomads with their livestock.^[86] The centralized regulations of the wells made it easier for the nomads to settle disputes by taking their queries to government officials who would act as mediators. Long distance caravan trade, a long-time practice in the Horn of Africa, continued unchanged in Ajuran times. Today, numerous ruined and abandoned towns throughout the interior of Somalia and the Horn of Africa are evidence of a once-booming inland trade network dating from the medieval period.^[87]

With the centralized supervision of the Ajuran, farms in Afgooye, Kismayo and other areas in the Jubba and Shabelle valleys increased their productivity. A system of irrigation ditches known locally as Kelliyo fed directly from the Shebelle and Jubba rivers into the plantations where sorghum, maize, beans, grain and cotton were grown during the gu (Spring in Somali) and xagaa (Summer in Somali) seasons of the Somali calendar. This irrigation system was supported by numerous dikes and dams. To determine the average size of a farm, a land measurement system was also invented with moos, taraab and guldeed being the terms used.^[88]

The Jubba River

Military

The Ajuran State had a standing army with which the governors ruled and protected their subjects. The bulk of the army consisted of recruited soldiers who did not have any loyalties to the traditional Somali clan system, thereby making them more reliable.^[89][90][91] The soldiers were recruited from the inter-riverine area; other recruits came from the surrounding nomadic region. Arab, Persian and Turkish mercenaries were at times employed as well.^[92][93]

Almnara Somalia defensive tower

In the early period, the army's weapons consisted of traditional Somali weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, battle axes, and bows. The Empire received assistance from the Ottoman Empire, and with the import of firearms through the Muzzaffar port of Mogadishu, the army began acquiring muskets and cannons.^[94][95]

The Ottomans would also remain a key ally during the Ajuran-Portuguese wars. Horses used for military purposes were raised in the interior, and numerous stone fortifications were erected to provide shelter for the army in the coastal districts.^[96] In each province, the soldiers were under the supervision of a military commander known as an emir.^[90] The coastal areas and the lucrative Indian Ocean trade were protected by a navy.^[52]

Taxation

See also: Mogadishu currency

Mogadishan currency

The State collected tribute from the farmers in the form of harvested products like durra, sorghum and bun, and from the nomads, cattle, camels and goats. The collecting of tribute was done by a wazir. Luxury goods imported from foreign lands were also presented as gifts to the Garen rulers by the coastal sultans of the state.

A political device that was implemented by the Garen rulers in their realm was a form of ius primae noctis,^[97] which enabled them to create marriages that enforced their hegemonic rule over all the important groups of the empire. The rulers would also claim a large portion of the bride's wealth, which at the time was 100 camels.^[98]

For trade, the Ajuran Empire minted its own Ajuran currency.^[99] It also utilized the Mogadishan currency originally minted by the Sultanate of Mogadishu, which later became incorporated into the Ajuran Empire.^[53] Mogadishan coins have been found as far away as the present-day country of the United Arab Emirates in the Middle East.^[100]

Urban and maritime centers

The urban centers of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, and their respective ports became profitable trade outlets for commodities originating from the interior of the State.^[101] The farming communities of the hinterland brought their products to the coastal cities, where they were sold to local merchants who maintained a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, Venice, Persia, Egypt, Portugal, and as far away as China.^{[102][103][104][105]}

Citadel ruins of Gondershe

Vasco da Gama, who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century^[106] noted that it was a large city with houses of four or five storeys high and big palaces in its centre and many mosques with cylindrical minarets.^[107][108] In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory.^[109][110] Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.^[111][112] Mogadishu, the center of a thriving weaving industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt and Syria),^[113] together with Merca and Barawa also served as transit stops for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa.^[114] There were Jewish merchants from the Hormuz who brought their Indian textile and fruits to the Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood.^[115][116]

The walled city of Mogadishu on the 16th century Miller Atlas.

Trading relations were established with Malacca in the 15th century,^[117] with cloth, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade.^[118] In addition, giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the Ming Empire of China.^[119] Hindu merchants from Surat and Southeast African merchants from Pate seeking to bypass both the Portuguese blockade and Omani interference used the ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety.^[120]

Major cities

The Ajuran Empire was an influential Somali kingdom that held sway over several cities and towns in central and southern Somalia during the Middle Ages.^[121] With the fall of the Sultanate, a number of these settlements continued to prosper, eventually becoming major cities in present-day Somalia.^[122][123] A few of the cities and towns were abandoned or destroyed:

Medieval city of Barawa

Capital

• Mareeg (initially) (town in the Galguduud region of Somalia)
• Qelafo (town in the Somali Region of Ethiopia)
• Merca (port city in the Lower Shebelle region of Somalia)
• Mogadishu (harbor city and current capital of Somalia)

Port cities

• Hobyo (harbor city in the Mudug region of Somalia)
• Eyl (port town in the Nugal region of Somalia)
• Hafun (port town in the Bari region of Somalia)
• El Buur (town in the Galgaduud region of Somalia)
• Kismayo (port city in the Lower Juba region of Somalia)
• Barawa (port town in the Lower Shebelle region of Somalia)
• Warsheikh (port town in the Middle Shebelle region of Somalia)

  

  Model of a medieval Mogadishan ship

Other cities

• Afgooye (town in the Lower Shebelle region of Somalia)
• Baidoa (a city in the Bay region of Somalia)
• Gondershe (abandoned, but now a popular tourist attraction site)
• Hannassa (abandoned)
• Ras Bar Balla (abandoned)

Economy

See also: Maritime history of Somalia

The Ajuran Empire relied on agriculture and trade for most of its income. Major agricultural towns were located on the Shebelle and Jubba rivers, including Kismayo and Afgooye. Situated at the junction of some of the busiest medieval trade routes, the Ajuran and its clients were active participants in the East African gold trade, the Silk Road commerce, trade in the Indian Ocean, and commercial enterprise as far as East Asia.^[14][124]

Mogadishu imported valuable gold Sequin coins from the Venetian Empire in Europe.

The Ajuran Empire also minted its own Ajuran currency. Many medieval bronze coins inscribed with the names of Ajuran Sultans have been found in the coastal Benadir province, in addition to pieces from Muslim rulers of Southern Arabia and Persia.^[99]

Through the use of commercial vessels, compasses, multiple port cities, light houses and other technology, the merchants of the Ajuran Empire did brisk business with traders from the following states:

Trading countries in Asia	Imports	Exports
Ming Empire	celadon wares and their currency	horses, exotic animals, and ivory
Mughal Empire	cloth and spices	gold, wax and wood
Malacca Sultanate	ambergris and porcelain	cloth and gold
Maldive Islands	cowries	musk and sheep
Kingdom of Jaffna	cinnamon and their currency	cloth
Trading countries in the Near East
Ottoman Empire	muskets and cannons	textiles
Safavid Persian Empire	textiles and fruit	grain and wood
Trading countries in Europe
Portuguese Empire	gold	cloth
Venetian Empire	sequins	–
Dutch Empire	–	–
Trading countries in Africa
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)	–	cloth
Adal Sultanate	–	–
Ethiopian Empire	–	–
Swahili Coast	–	–
Monomopata	gold and ivory	spices and cloth
Gonderine Ethiopian Empire	gold and cattle	cloth
Merina Kingdom	–	–

Diplomacy

The Ajuran Empire maintained commercial ties with the Ming dynasty^[125]

With their maritime pursuits, the Ajuran Empire established trading and diplomatic ties across the old world, especially in Asia, from being close allies of the grand power of the Ottomans to having cordial ties with the mighty Ming Dynasty, paving the way for merchants from Ajuran to embark on great maritime expeditions, as far away as Java and Vietnam.^[126][127]

The ruler of the Ajuran Empire sent ambassadors to China to establish diplomatic ties, creating the first ever recorded African community in China and the most notable Somali ambassador in medieval China was Sa'id of Mogadishu^[128] who was the first African man to set foot in China in medieval history.^[129] In return, Emperor Yongle, the third emperor of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), dispatched one of the largest fleets in history to trade with the Somali nation. The fleet, under the leadership of the famed Hui Muslim Zheng He, arrived at Mogadishu while the city was at its peak in economic and social vibrancy. Along with gold, frankincense and fabrics, Zheng brought back the first ever African wildlife to China, which included hippos, giraffes and gazelles.^{[130][131][132][133]}

Culture

See also: Somali architecture

14th century Somali-Arabo stone tablet

The Ajurans developed a very rich culture combining various forms of Somali culture with Islamic architecture, astronomy, and art. Society evolved and flourished during this period. The majority of the inhabitants were ethnic Somali but there were also Yemeni, Persian, and Turkish minorities.^{[134][135][136]} The vast majority of the population adhered to Sunni Islam with a Shia minority. The Somali language was the most commonly spoken language while Arabic was prominently used for commercial and religious purposes.^{[137][138][139][140]}

Example of a historic Somali figurehead from Mogadishu

The traditional martial art Istunka, also known as Dabshid, was born during the reign of Ajuran. An annual tournament is still held every year for it in Afgooye.^[141] Carving, known in Somali as Qoris, was practiced in the coastal cities of the state. Many wealthy urbanites in the medieval period regularly employed the finest wood and marble carvers in Somalia to work on their interiors and houses. The carvings on the mihrabs and pillars of ancient Somali mosques are some of the oldest on the continent, with Masjid Fakhr al-Din being one of the oldest mosques in Africa.^[142]

Artistic carving was considered the craft of men similar to how the Somali textile industry was mainly a women's business. Amongst the nomads, carving, especially woodwork, was widespread and could be found on the most basic objects such as spoons, combs and bowls, but it also included more complex structures such as the portable nomadic tent, the aqal.^[143]

In the Merca area, various pillar tombs still exist, which local tradition holds were built in the 16th century, when the Ajuran Empire's naa'ibs governed the district.^[144][145]

Legacy

The empire left an extensive architectural legacy, being one of the major medieval Somali powers engaged in castle and fortress building. Many of the ruined fortifications dotting the landscapes of southern Somalia today are attributed to the Ajuran Empire's engineers,^[144] including a number of the pillar tomb fields, necropolises and ruined cities built in that era. During the Ajuran period, many regions and people in the southern part of the Horn of Africa converted to Islam because of the theocratic nature of the government.^[146] The royal family, the House of Garen, expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances.^[20][147]

In the fifteenth century, for example, the Ajuran Empire was the only hydraulic empire in Africa at the time.^[148] As a water dynasty, the Ajuran state monopolized the water resources of the Shebelle and Jubba rivers.^[149] Through hydraulic engineering, it constructed many of the limestone wells and cisterns of the state that remain in use til today.^[150] The rulers developed new systems for agriculture and taxation, which continued to be used in parts of the Horn of Africa as late as the 19th century.^[5] The rule of the later Ajuran rulers caused multiple rebellions to break out within the empire, and at the end of the 17th century, Ajuran disintegrated into several successor states, the most notable being the Geledi Sultanate.^[151]

See also

• History of Somalia
• List of Muslim states and dynasties
• List of Sunni dynasties

References

1. Furlow, Richard Bennett (2013). The spectre of colony: colonialism, Islamism, and state in Somalia (PDF). Arizona State University. The peak of Somali culture and power in the pre-colonial years came during the Ajuuraan Sultanate from the fourteenth through seventeenth centuries
2. Pearce, Jeff (15 April 2022). The Gifts of Africa: How a Continent and Its People Changed the World. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-63388-771-8.
3. Caulfield, J. Benjamin (1850). Mathematical & physical geography. Edwards & Hughes, 12, Ave Maria Lane. p. 190.
4. Reid, Hugo (1853). A System of Modern Geography ... with Exercises of Examination. To which are Added Treatises on Astronomy and Physical Geography. p. 166.
5. Njoku 2013, p. 40.
6. "Ajuran | historical state, Africa". Encyclopedia Britannica.
7. Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (1989). "The Emergence and Role of Political Parties in the Inter-River Region of Somalia from 1947–1960". Ufahamu. 17 (2): 98. doi:10.5070/F7172016882.
8. Luling, Virginia (2002). Somali Sultanate: the Geledi city-state over 150 years. Transaction Publishers. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-874209-98-0.
9. Luc Cambrézy, Populations réfugiées: de l'exil au retour, p.316
10. Guo, Rongxing (16 May 2018). Human-Earth System Dynamics: Implications to Civilizations. Springer. p. 83. ISBN 978-981-13-0547-4.
11. Abdurahman, Abdullahi (18 September 2017). Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1. Adonis and Abbey Publishers. p. 64. ISBN 978-1-909112-79-7.
12. Furlow, Richard Bennett (2013). The spectre of colony: colonialism, Islamism, and state in Somalia (Report). Arizona State University. p. 7.
13. McManus, Robert M.; Perruci, Gamaliel (9 December 2019). Understanding Leadership: An Arts and Humanities Perspective. Routledge. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-429-62138-3.
14. Shelley, Fred M. (2013). Nation Shapes: The Story behind the World's Borders. ABC-CLIO. p. 358. ISBN 978-1-61069-106-2.
15. Rodriguez, Jorge de Torres (18 May 2022), "The Medieval Archaeology of Somaliland", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology, ISBN 978-0-19-085458-4
16. Abidde, Sabella; Ayoola, Tokunbo A. (3 February 2021). China in Africa: Between Imperialism and Partnership in Humanitarian Development. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-7936-1233-5.
17. Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
18. Pearce, Jeff (15 April 2022). The Gifts of Africa: How a Continent and Its People Changed the World. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-63388-771-8.
19. Lewis, I. M. (1988). A Modern History of Somalia: Nation and State in the Horn of Africa (2nd, revised ed.). Westview Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8133-7402-4.
20. Pouwels, Randall L. (2006). Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800–1900. African Studies. Vol. 53. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-521-52309-7.
21. Pouwels, Randall L.; Pouwels, Randall Lee (6 June 2002). Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800-1900. Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-521-52309-7.
22. Mondes en développement (in French). Éditions techniques et économiques. 1989. p. 87.
23. Cassanelli, Lee V. (1973). The Benaadir Past: Essays in Southern Somali History. University of Wisconsin--Madison. pp. 34–44.
24. Lewis, I. M. (3 February 2017). Islam in Tropical Africa. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-31139-5.
25. Nelson, Harold D. (1982). Somalia, a Country Study. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 11. …led by the Arab influenced Hawiye, a Samaale clan-family that had entered the region from the Ogaden
26. Cassanelli, Lee V. (1975). "Migrations, Islam, and politics in Somali Benaadir, 1500-1843". In Marcus, Harold G.; Schoonmaker, Kathleen M. (eds.). Proceedings of the First United States Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Michigan State University, 2-5 May, 1973. African Studies Center, Michigan State University. pp. 101–115.
27. Clark, Desmond (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 155. ISBN 9780521209816.
28. Landmann, George (1835). A universal gazetteer; or, Geographical dictionary of the world. Longman and Company [and others].
29. Jr, Everett Jenkins (7 May 2015). The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 2, 1500-1799): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. McFarland. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-4766-0889-1.
30. Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-0-521-20981-6.
31. Pouwels, Randall L.; Pouwels, Randall Lee (6 June 2002). Horn and Crescent: Cultural Change and Traditional Islam on the East African Coast, 800-1900. Cambridge University Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-521-52309-7.
32. Loughran, Katheryne S. (1986). Somalia in Word and Image. Foundation - University of Michigan. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-253-35360-3.
33. Marchal, Roland (1997). Studies on Governance. United Nations Development Office for Somalia. p. 18.
34. Linschoten, Jan Huyghen van (1644). Beschrijvinge vande gantsche custe van Guinea, Manicongo, Angola, Monomotapa, ende tegenover de Cabo de S. Augustijn in Brasilien ... midtsgaders de voorder beschrijvinge op de caerten van Madagascar, ander 't eylant S. Laurens ghenoemt ... noch volght de beschrijvinge van West-Indien int langh, met hare caerte (in Dutch).
35. Northeast African Studies. Vol. 11. African Studies Center, Michigan State University. 1989. p. 115.
36. Cassanelli (1982), p. 102.
37. Delahaye, Guillaume-Nicolas (1753). Nouvelle Mappe Monde: dediée auf progres de nos connoissances (in French). R. J. Julien.
38. Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-521-20981-6.
39. Boxhall, Peter (1992). "Portuguese seafarers in the Indian Ocean". Asian Affairs. 23 (3): 322–330. doi:10.1080/714041196. ISSN 0306-8374.
40. Turley, Jeffrey S.; Souza, George Bryan (1 January 2017), "[First Attempt to Return to Spain and Forced Return from Mozambique to Goa. Account of Loss of Qeshm and Hormuz. D. García de Silva y Figueroa's Final Departure from Goa. 19 December 1620–28 April 1624]", The Commentaries of D. García de Silva y Figueroa on his Embassy to Shāh ʿAbbās I of Persia on Behalf of Philip III, King of Spain, Brill, pp. 770–861, ISBN 978-90-04-34632-1
41. Guidance, Somalia Ministry of Information and National (1975). Somalia Today: Facts and General Information. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic.
42. Köse, Mehmet (2021). A Decade Transformed Revival of Turkey and Somalia's Multilayer Relations. afrika vakfı yayınları. ISBN 978-605-70819-3-3.
43. Njoku 2013, p. 14.
44. The book of Duarte Barbosa – Page 30
45. Peak Revision K.C.S.E. History & Government. East African Publishers. ISBN 978-9966-25-460-3.
46. UK, BLAM (6 December 2023). Global Black Narratives for the Classroom: Africa, the Americas and the Caribbean: Practical Lesson Plans, Worksheets and Activities for Ages 7-11. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-99280-9.
47. The History of the Portuguese, During the Reign of Emmanuel pg.287
48. Azzam, Abdul Rahman (4 May 2017). The Other Exile: The Remarkable Story of Fernão Lopes, the Island of St Helena and the meaning of human solitude. Icon Books. ISBN 978-1-78578-184-1.
49. Maritime Discovery: A History of Nautical Exploration from the Earliest Times pg 198
50. Schurhammer, Georg (1977). Francis Xavier: His Life, his times - vol. 2: India, 1541-1545.
51. "Letter from João de Sepúlveda to the King, Mozambique, 1542 August 10", in Documents on the Portuguese in Mozambique and Central Africa 1497-1840 Vol. III (1540-1560). National Archives of Rhodesia, Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos. Lisbon, 1971 p.133
52. Welch (1950), p. 25.
53. Stanley, Bruce (2007). "Mogadishu". In Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (eds.). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 253. ISBN 978-1-57607-919-5.
54. Four centuries of Swahili verse: a literary history and anthology – p. 11
55. COINS FROM MOGADISHU, c. 1300 to c. 1700 by G. S. P. Freeman-Grenville pg 36
56. King, Joe (1 December 1986). Süleyman the Magnificent. Marine Publishing.
57. Loimeier, Roman (17 July 2013). Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology. Indiana University Press. p. 224. ISBN 978-0-253-02732-0.
58. Christopher, A. J. (3 May 2023). Colonial Africa. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-85590-6.
59. Tanzania notes and records: the journal of the Tanzania Society pg 76
60. Jr, Everett Jenkins (7 May 2015). The Muslim Diaspora (Volume 2, 1500-1799): A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia, Africa, Europe and the Americas. McFarland. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4766-0889-1.
61. Reese, Scott Steven (2008). Renewers of the Age: Holy Men and Social Discourse in Colonial Benaadir. BRILL. p. 41. ISBN 978-90-04-16729-2.
62. Russell, William (24 March 2017). Islam: A Threat to Civilization 2nd Edition. First Edition Design Pub. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-5069-0410-8.
63. Martin, B. G. (1974). "Arab Migrations to East Africa in Medieval Times". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 7 (3): 367–390. doi:10.2307/217250. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 217250.
64. C., O. G. S.; de Almeida, Manuel; Bahrey; Beckingham, C. F.; Huntingford, George Wynn Brereton (June 1955). "Some Records of Ethiopia, 1593–1646: Being Extracts from 'The History of High Ethiopia or Abassia' by Manoel de Almeida, Together with Bahrey's 'History of the Galla'". The Geographical Journal. 121 (2): 220. Bibcode:1955GeogJ.121..220C. doi:10.2307/1791718. ISSN 0016-7398. JSTOR 1791718.
65. Gish, Steven; Thay, Winnie; Latif, Zawiah Abdul (2007). Ethiopia. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-2025-5.
66. Kitagawa, Joseph M. (March 1953). "Contemporary Ethiopia. By David A. Talbot. New York: Philosophical Library. 1952. xxi+267 pages. – Islam in Ethiopia. By J. Spencer Trimingham. London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press, 1952. iv+299 pages". Church History. 22 (1): 55–56. doi:10.2307/3161117. ISSN 0009-6407. JSTOR 3161117. S2CID 162230535.
67. Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Geshekter, Charles Lee (1992). The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Somali Studies. Scholars Press. pp. 154–156. ISBN 978-0-89130-658-0.
68. Braukamper, Ulrich; Braukämper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 155. ISBN 978-3-8258-5671-7.
69. Andrzejewski, B. W. (1975). "A Genealogical Note Relevant To The Dating Of Sheikh Hussein Of Bale". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 38 (1): 139–140. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00047091. ISSN 1474-0699.
70. Cassanelli (1982), p. 114.
71. Cerulli, Somalia 1: 65–67
72. Luling, Virginia (2002). Somali Sultanate: The Geledi City-state Over 150 Years. Transaction Publishers. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-874209-98-0.
73. Lewis, I. M.; Samatar, Said S. (1999). A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-85255-280-3.
74. Ali, Abdulkadir (4 December 2023). The Covert Genocide: Tragedy of a Nation Downtrodden. Fulton Books, Inc. ISBN 979-8-88731-671-0.
75. Lewis (1988), p. 37.
76. Lewis, I. M. (1960). "The Somali Conquest of the Horn of Africa". The Journal of African History. 1 (2): 213–230. doi:10.1017/S0021853700001808. ISSN 1469-5138.
77. Pearce, Jeff (15 April 2022). The Gifts of Africa: How a Continent and Its People Changed the World. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-63388-771-8.
78. Lewis, I. M. (1960). "The Somali Conquest of the Horn of Africa". The Journal of African History. 1 (2): 213–230. doi:10.1017/S0021853700001808. ISSN 1469-5138.
79. Hassig, Susan M.; Latif, Zawiah Abdul; Bjorklund, Ruth (15 April 2017). Somalia. Cavendish Square Publishing, LLC. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-5026-2607-3.
80. Chen duo fen tong ming xie zhenphotobook. Soffer Publishing. 2021. ISBN 978-986-06246-3-2.
81. Fage, J. D.; Oliver, Roland (1975). The Cambridge History of Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-521-20981-6.
82. Abdullahi, Abdurahman (2021). "The Conception of Islam in Somalia: Consensus and Controversy". Bildhaan: An International Journal of Somali Studies. 1.
83. Ylönen, Aleksi (25 January 2024). The Horn Engaging the Gulf: Economic Diplomacy and Statecraft in Regional Relations. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-7556-3515-3.
84. Abdurahman, Abdullahi (18 September 2017). Making Sense of Somali History: Volume 1. Adonis and Abbey Publishers. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-909112-79-7.
85. Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. pp. 34–36. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
86. Siedlak, Monique Joiner (26 October 2023). Exploring the Rich and Diverse World: of African Spirituality. Oshun Publications, LLC. ISBN 978-1-961362-05-5.
87. Cassanelli (1982), p. 149.
88. Cassanelli, Lee V. (1997), "Somali Land Resource Issues in Historical Perspective", Learning From Somalia, Routledge, pp. 65–76, doi:10.4324/9780429499289-6, ISBN 978-0-429-49928-9
89. UK, BLAM (6 December 2023). Global Black Narratives for the Classroom: Africa, the Americas and the Caribbean: Practical Lesson Plans, Worksheets and Activities for Ages 7-11. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-99280-9.
90. Cassanelli (1982), p. 90.
91. Macpherson, David (1812). The History of the European Commerce with India: To which is Subjoined a Review of the Arguments for and Against the Trade with India ... Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown. p. 16.
92. Cassanelli (1982), p. 104.
93. Welch, Sidney R. (1950). Portuguese rule and Spanish crown in South Africa, 1581–1640. Juta. ISBN 978-0-8426-1588-4.
94. Soucek, 2008, p.48.
95. Köse, Mehmet (2021). A Decade Transformed Revival of Turkey and Somalia's Multilayer Relations. afrika vakfı yayınları. p. 11. ISBN 978-605-70819-3-3.
96. Cassanelli (1982), p. 92.
97. The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600-1900 - Page 95
98. Siedlak, Monique Joiner (26 October 2023). Exploring the Rich and Diverse World: of African Spirituality. Oshun Publications, LLC. ISBN 978-1-961362-05-5.
99. Ali, Ismail Mohamed (1970). Somalia Today: General Information. Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Somali Democratic Republic. p. 206. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
100. Chittick, H. Neville (1976). An Archaeological Reconnaissance in the Horn: The British-Somali Expedition, 1975. British Institute in Eastern Africa. pp. 117–133.
101. Roe, Sir Thomas; Fryer, John (1993). Travels in India in the Seventeenth Century. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0867-2.
102. Sullivan, Bobby (4 December 2018). Revolutionary Threads: Rastafari, Social Justice, and Cooperative Economics. Akashic Books. ISBN 978-1-61775-697-9.
103. Defoe, Daniel (11 May 2012). A General History of the Pyrates. Courier Corporation. pp. 543–555. ISBN 978-0-486-13194-8.
104. Warah, Rasna (2012). Mogadishu Then and Now: A Pictorial Tribute to Africa's Most Wounded City. AuthorHouse. p. 2009. ISBN 978-1-4772-2903-3.
105. Hegde, Dr P. D. (9 September 2021). A brief History of Great Inventions. K.K. Publications. p. 211.
106. Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
107. Towle, George Makepeace (1878). The Voyages and Adventures of Vasco Da Gama. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Company. p. 257.
108. E. G. Ravenstein (2010). A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco Da Gama, 1497–1499. Cambridge University Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-1-108-01296-6.
109. Jama, Ahmed Dualeh (1996). The Origins and Development of Mogadishu AD 1000 to 1850: A Study of the Urban Growth Along the Benadir Coast of Southern Somalia. Department of Archaeology, Uppsala University. p. 88. ISBN 978-91-506-1123-6.
110. Asante, Molefi Kete (31 January 2024). The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-003-81615-7.
111. East Africa and its Invaders pg.38
112. Alpers, Edward A. (1976). "Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, c. 1500-1800". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 9 (1): 22–44. doi:10.2307/217389. ISSN 0361-7882. JSTOR 217389.
113. Alpers, Edward A. (1976). "Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa, c. 1500–1800". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 9 (1): 35. doi:10.2307/217389. JSTOR 217389.
114. Harris, Nigel (2003). The Return of Cosmopolitan Capital: Globalization, the State and War. I.B.Tauris. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-86064-786-4.
115. Barendse, Rene J. (2002). The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-45835-7.
116. Asante, Molefi Kete (31 January 2024). The History of Africa: The Quest for Eternal Harmony. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-003-81615-7.
117. Ruibal, Alfredo González (31 January 2023), "Long Distance Trade in Somalia, 1st–19th Centuries AD", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4
118. Chinese Porcelain Marks from Coastal Sites in Kenya: aspects of trade in the Indian Ocean, XIV-XIX centuries. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, 1978 pg 2
119. East Africa and its Invaders pg.37
120. Gujarat and the Trade of East Africa pg.45
121. Köse, Mehmet (2021). A Decade Transformed Revival of Turkey and Somalia's Multilayer Relations. afrika vakfı yayınları. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-605-70819-3-3.
122. A short system of polite learning: being a concise introduction to the arts and sciences, and other branches of useful knowledge. Adapted for schools. W. Bent. 1789. p. 62.
123. Ogilby, John (1670). Africa: Being Accurate Description of the Regions of Aegypt, Barbary, Lybia, and Billendulgerid, the Land of Negroes, Guinee, AEthiopia, and the Abyssines; with All the Adjacent Island. T. Johnson. p. 488.
124. Abidde, Sabella; Ayoola, Tokunbo A. (3 February 2021). China in Africa: Between Imperialism and Partnership in Humanitarian Development. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 142. ISBN 978-1-7936-1233-5.
125. Dening, Nie (6 February 1997). "CHINESE MERCHANTS AND THEIR MARITIME ACTIVITIES UNDER THE BAN ON MARITIME TRADE IN THE MING DYNASTY (1368–1567)". Ming Qing Yanjiu. 6 (1): 69–92. doi:10.1163/24684791-90000366. ISSN 2468-4791.
126. Kusimba, Chapurukha M.; Zhu, Tiequan; Kiura, Purity Wakabari (2 December 2019). China and East Africa: Ancient Ties, Contemporary Flows. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4985-7615-4.
127. Abegunrin, Olayiwola; Manyeruke, Charity (2020), Abegunrin, Olayiwola; Manyeruke, Charity (eds.), "Sino-Africa Relations: An Overview", China’s Power in Africa: A New Global Order, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 9–25, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21994-9_2, ISBN 978-3-030-21994-9
128. Pearce, Jeff (15 April 2022). The Gifts of Africa: How a Continent and Its People Changed the World. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-63388-771-8.
129. Jackson, Peter (1996). "The Travels of Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, a.d. 1325–1354. Vol. IV. Translated, with revisions and notes, from the Arabic text edited by C. Defrémery and B. R. Sanguinetti, by H. A. R. Gibb and C. F. Beckingham. (Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, Second Series, 178). London, The Hakluyt Society, 1994". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 6 (2): 262–265. doi:10.1017/S1356186300007434. ISSN 1474-0591.
130. Wilson, Samuel M. (December 1992). "The Emperor's Giraffe". Natural History. 101 (13). Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
131. Rice, Xan (25 July 2010). "Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral". The Guardian.
132. "Could a rusty coin re-write Chinese-African history?". BBC News. 18 October 2010.
133. "Zheng He'S Voyages to the Western Oceans 郑和下西洋". People.chinese.cn. Archived from the original on 30 April 2013. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
134. Lewis, I. M. (2008). Understanding Somalia and Somaliland: Culture, History, Society. Hurst. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-85065-898-6.
135. Reese, Scott Steven (2008). Renewers of the Age: Holy Men and Social Discourse in Colonial Benaadir. BRILL. p. 65. ISBN 978-90-04-16729-2.
136. Reese, Scott Steven (1996). Patricians of the Benaadir: Islamic Learning, Commerce and Somali Urban Identity in the Nineteenth Century. University of Pennsylvania. p. 176.
137. Laitin, David D. (1977). Politics, Language, and Thought: The Somali Experience. University of Chicago Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0-226-46791-7.
138. Simpson, Edward; Kresse, Kai (2008). Struggling with History: Islam and Cosmopolitanism in the Western Indian Ocean. Columbia University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-231-70023-8.
139. Scikei, Nuredin Hagi (23 January 2018). Exploring the Old Stone Town of Mogadishu. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-5275-0685-5.
140. Meirison, Meirison; Bukhari, Bukhari; Saharuddin, Desmadi; Muhammadi, Qasem; Mistarija, Mistarija (1 February 2024). "The Role of Islamic Da'wah and the Implementation of Sharia on the Existence of Muslims in the Maldives Islands Past and Present". Jurnal Ilmiah Islam Futura. 24 (1): 85–101. doi:10.22373/jiif.v24i1.18005. ISSN 2407-7542.
141. Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
142. "Fakhr al-Din Mosque". Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 19 August 2013. ArchNet – Masjid Fakhr al-Din
143. Culture and customs of Somalia By Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi pg 97
144. Cassanelli (1982), p. 101
145. Cassanelli (1982), p. 97.
146. Ramsamy, Edward, ed. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 2: Africa. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7.
147. Cassanelli, Lee V. (1973). The Benaadir Past: Essays in Southern Somali History. University of Wisconsin--Madison.
148. Siedlak, Monique Joiner (26 October 2023). Exploring the Rich and Diverse World: of African Spirituality. Oshun Publications, LLC. ISBN 978-1-961362-05-5.
149. Human-Earth System Dynamics Implications to Civilizations By Rongxing Guo Page 83
150. Firmin, Toleve K. (14 May 2020). The Untold Story Of Slavery. Djovi Yom Joel Hounakey.
151. Njoku 2013, p. 41.

Sources cited

• Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003). Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6604-1.
• Cassanelli, Lee V. (1982). The Shaping of Somali Society: Reconstructing the History of a Pastoral People, 1600–1900. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-7832-3.
• Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). The History of Somalia. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9780313378584.