Pseudohistorical list of Ethiopian monarchs from 4530 BCE to 1779 CE
The 1922 regnal list incorporated names from Biblical, Egyptological, Greco-Roman and native Ethiopian sources. Clockwise from upper left: (1) Makeda, the Queen of Sheba, (2) Pharaoh Taharqa of Kush, (3) Ezana of the Kingdom of Axum and (4) Zewditu, incumbent Empress of Ethiopia at the time the list was written.
The 1922 regnal list of Ethiopia is an official regnal list used by the Ethiopian monarchy which names over 300 monarchs across six millennia. The list is partially inspired by older Ethiopian regnal lists and chronicles, but is notable for additional monarchs who ruled Nubia, which was known as Aethiopia in ancient times. Also included are various figures from Greek mythology and the Biblical canon who were known to be "Aethiopian", as well as figures who originated from Egyptian sources (Ancient Egyptian, Coptic and Arabic).
This list of monarchs was included in Charles Fernand Rey's book In the Country of the Blue Nile in 1927, and is the longest Ethiopian regnal list published in the Western world. It is the only known regnal list that attempts to provide a timeline of Ethiopian monarchs from the 46th century BC up to modern times without any gaps.[1] However, earlier portions of the regnal list are pseudohistorical and were recent additions to Ethiopian tradition at the time the list was written.[2][3] Despite claims by at least one Ethiopian court historian that the list dates back to ancient times,[4] the list is more likely an early 20th century creation, possibly originally written by Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam or Heruy Wolde Selassie.[5][6] The earlier sections of the list are clearly inspired by the work of French historian Louis J. Morié, who published a two-volume history of "Ethiopia" (i.e. Nubia and Abyssinia) in 1904.[3] His work drew on then-recent Egyptological research but attempted to combine this with the Biblical canon and writings by ancient Greek authors. This resulted in a pseudohistorical work that was more imaginative than scientific in its approach to Ethiopian history.[3]
This regnal list contains a great deal of conflation between the history of modern-day Ethiopia and Aethiopia, a term used in ancient times and in some Biblical translations to refer to a generalised region south of Egypt, most commonly in reference to the Kingdom of Kush in modern-day Sudan. As a result, many parts of this article will deal with the history of ancient Sudan and how this became interwoven into the history of the Kingdom of Axum, the region of Abyssinia (which includes modern-day Eritrea) and the modern state of Ethiopia. The territory of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea was known as "Abyssinia" to Europeans until the mid-20th century, and as such this term will be used occasionally in this article to differentiate from 'ancient' Aethiopia (i.e. Nubia).
Background
Tafari Makonnen in 1923
Origins and alleged antiquity
Charles Fernand Rey's 1927 book In the Country of the Blue Nile included a 13-page appendix with a list of Ethiopian monarchs written by the Prince Regent Tafari Makonnen, who later became the Emperor of Ethiopia in 1930.[7] Tafari's list begins in 4530 BC and ends in 1779 AD, with dates following the Ethiopian Calendar, which is several years behind the Gregorian calendar.[8] Tafari's cover letter was written in the town of Addis Ababa on the 11th day of Sane, 1914 (Ethiopian Calendar), which was June 19, 1922 on the Gregorian Calendar according to Rey.[9]
Rey revealed in another book he wrote, Unconquered Abyssinia, that this list was given to him in 1924 by a court historian who was a "learned old gentleman".[10] This court historian had "caused to be compiled [...] on the instructions of Ras Tafari" a complete list of "rulers of Abyssinia from the beginning of time up to date."[10] Rey noted that the list contained many names "of Egyptian origin", which was a "good illustration" of the difficulties in researching the history of Abyssinia.[10] The court historian claimed that the regnal list had already been compiled prior to the "advent of the Ethiopian dynasty in Egypt" and that the original version had been taken to Egypt and left there, afterwards becoming lost.[4]
Ethiopian tradition traces the origins of the dynasty to a king called Ori, who lived about 4470 BC [sic]. While the reality of such a vastly remote provenance must be considered in semi-mythic terms, it remains certain that Ethiopia, also known as the Kingdom of Kush, was already ancient by the time of David and Solomon's rule in Jerusalem.[11]
The goal of the 1922 regnal list was to showcase the immense longevity of the Ethiopian monarchy. The list does this by providing precise dates over 6,300 years and drawing upon various historical traditions from both within Ethiopia and outside of Ethiopia.
Multiple versions of the regnal list are known to exist. Tafari's regnal list has 313 numbered monarchs from 4530 BC to 1779 AD (E.C.) while Taye Gabra Mariam's version of the list continued up to the contemporary times to include influential Rases of the Zemene Mesafint and emperors who had reigned since the time of Tewodros II.[7][12]
The first three dynasties (4530–982 BC) of the list are mostly legendary and take various elements from the Bible, as well as Ancient Egyptian, Nubian, Greek, Coptic and Arab sources. Many of the monarchs of the Menelik dynasty (982 BC–AD 920) appear on Ethiopian regnal lists written before 1922, but these lists often contradict each other and many of the kings themselves are not archeologically verified, though in some cases their existence is confirmed by Aksumite coinage. Many of the historically verified rulers of the Ag'azyan (1985–982 BC) and Menelik dynasties did not rule over the region of modern Ethiopia but rather over Egypt and/or Nubia. It is only from the mid-1st century onward that the monarchs are certainly Aksumite or "Abyssinian" in origin.
Each monarch on the list has their respective reign dates and number of years listed. Two columns of reign dates were used in the list. One column uses dates according to the Ethiopian calendar, while the other column lists the "Year of the World", placing the creation of the world in 5500 BC. Other Ethiopian texts and documents have also placed a similar date for the creation of the world.[13][14] The dating of 5500 BC as the creation of the world was influenced by calculations from the Alexandrian and Byzantine eras which placed the world's creation in 5493 BC and 5509 BC respectively.[15]
Authorship
Neither Tafari Makonnen nor Charles Rey explicitly stated who wrote the regnal list originally or who supplied Tafari with a copy of it. Both Heruy Wolde Selassie and Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam included versions of the list in their work, however there is clear evidence that a large part of the list's early sections is lifted from the work of an obscure French historian named Louis J. Morié.
Heruy Wolde Selassie and Wazema
Heruy Wolde Selassie in a photograph taken prior to 1939
German historian Manfred Kropp believed the author of the regnal list was Ethiopian foreign minister Heruy Wolde Selassie (1878–1938). Selassie was a philosopher and historian, and had mastered several European languages. He had previously served as secretary to Emperor Menelik II (r. 1889–1913).[6] At the time the list was written in 1922, Selassie was president of the special court in Addis Ababa, whose job was to resolve disputes between Ethiopians and foreigners.[16]
Kropp noted that Selassie's historical sources include the Bible, Christian Arab writers Jirjis al-Makin Ibn al-'Amid (1205–1273) and Ibn al-Rāhib (1205–1295), and Christian traveller and writer Sextus Julius Africanus (c. 160–240). Kropp argued that Selassie was one of a number of Ethiopian writers who sought to synchronize Ethiopian history with the wider Christian-Oriental histories. This was aided by the translation of Arabic texts in the 17th century. Kropp also felt that the developing field of Egyptology influenced Selassie's writings, particularly from Eduard Meyer, Gaston Maspero and Alexandre Moret, whose works were published in French in Addis Ababa in the early 20th century. Kropp believed that Selassie was also assisted by French missionaries and the works they held in their libraries.[17] Kropp additionally theorized that Tafari Makonnen played a large role in the writing of the list.[18]
Selassie wrote a book titled Wazema which contained a version of the regnal list. The title "Wazema" translates to The Vigil, a metaphor to celebrate the history of the kings of Ethiopia.[19] The book was divided into two sections, the first deals with political Ethiopian history from the dawn of history to modern times, while the second section deals with the history of the Ethiopian church.[19] Kropp noted there were three different versions of the regnal list published in the works of Selassie. Selassie's regnal list omits the first dynasty of Tafari's list – the so-called "Tribe of Ori or Aram" – and also the first three rulers of the second dynasty, instead beginning in 2545 BC with king Sebtah. Selassie himself stated that he used European literature among his sources, including James Bruce's Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790).[20] Manfred Kropp felt the existence of multiple versions of the regnal list suggest that Selassie grew increasingly critical of the sources he used for the first version of the list in 1922.[21] Ethiopian historian Sergew Hable Selassie commented that Heruy Wolde Selassie "strove for accuracy" but the sources he used for Wazema "precluded his success".[19]
Manfred Kropp noted one important source for the information in Wazema. Selassie himself told the reader that if they wish to find out about more about Joktan, the supposed founder of the Ag'azyan dynasty, they could consult page 237 of a book by "Moraya". At first Kropp thought this was referring to Alexandre Moret,[22] but it was later made clear that Selassie's regnal list had been significantly inspired by a book called Histoire de l'Éthiopie by Louis J. Morié, published in 1904.[3]
Louis J. Morié was a French historian who wrote a history of Ethiopia in the early 20th century. The two-volume work, titled Histoire de l'Éthiopie (Nubie et Abyssinie), was published in 1904, the first volume focusing on ancient Nubia (called "Ancient Ethiopia" by Morié) and the second volume focusing on Abyssinia ("Modern Ethiopia").[23][24] An abridged edition was printed in 1897, but only 100 copies were made for the author's friends.[25] Historian Manfred Kropp [de] identified the first volume as a key source in the creation of the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list and provided evidence from Morié's text that corroborated the names and information on the list.[3] Kropp noted that Morié's book was more imaginative than scientific in its approach to Ethiopian history and blamed Selassie's European friends and contemporaries for the influence of Morié's book on Selassie's writing of Ethiopian history.[3]E. A. Wallis Budge mentions Morié's book in his own similarly titled two-volume work A History of Ethiopia: Nubia and Abyssinia,[26] but surprisingly makes no mention of the clear similarity between Morié's narrative and the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list. Charles Rey, in his book Unconquered Abyssinia, mentioned an "enthusiastic French writer" who had dated "the birth of the Abyssinian monarchy from the foundation of the Kingdom of Meroë by Cush about 5800 B.C." but Rey felt this writer could "not be taken seriously" because of his belief that the Deluge was a historical event.[10] Rey was likely referring to Morié, who had claimed that 5800 BC was the approximate date when Cush began ruling Aethiopia and he also treated the Biblical flood narrative as historical fact.[27] Like Budge, Rey apparently did not notice the striking the similarities between Morié's narrative and the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list.
Morié's book displays his desire to hold on to religion and Biblical narratives in a world that was increasingly looking towards science. He showed concern with the possibility of abandoning religion, which would result in the "civilized" peoples of the world to descend down the moral scale.[28] Morié felt that it was possible for science and religion to be in agreement.[29] He described Atheism as a cause of moral and political decadence.[30] Because of his anxieties of the decline of religion, Morié sought to base his historical narrative around the Biblical timeline. He described the Book of Genesis as the best source to consult on the most remote parts of human history.[31]
Morié believed the "Ethiopian state of Meroe" was the oldest empire of the post-Flood world, having been founded by Cush of the Bible, and went on to birth the kingdoms of Egypt, Uruk, Babylon, Assyria and Abyssinia.[32] Morié followed the Biblical tradition by crediting Nimrod, a son of Cush, with founding Uruk and Babylon, and crediting Mizraim, a son of Ham, with founding Egypt.[29] He additionally identified Mizraim with the Egyptian god Osiris, Ham with Amun and Cush with Khonsu.[33] Morié defined the history of "Ethiopia" as divided into two parts; Ancient Nubia and Christian Abyssinia,[34] and defined "Ethiopians" as the Nubian and Abyssinian peoples.[35] Morié acknowledged the potential confusion this could cause and thus occasionally used "Abyssinia" to specify which of these two regions he was writing about, with a priority of using "Ethiopia" for ancient Nubia.[36]
Alaqa Taye's History of the People of Ethiopia
Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam (1861–1924) was a Protestant Ethiopian scholar, translator and teacher whose written works include books on grammar, religion and Ethiopian history.[37] He was ordered by Emperor Menelik II to write a complete history of Ethiopia using Ethiopian, European and Arab sources.[38] Taye's first historical work was Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik ("History of the People of Ethiopia"), published in 1922, the same year Tafari's regnal list was written.[39] The book contained legends and folk stories around the origins of different people of Ethiopia.[39]Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik was a condensed from of a much larger work titled Ya-Ityopya Mangist Tarik ("History of the Ethiopian State"), which has not been published and is only known to exist in partial form as manuscripts.[40] Sergew Hable Selassie felt this book did not "do justice to [Taye's] erudition and does not reflect his true ability", as it was based on "unreliable sources" and was "not at all systematic".[19]
History of the People of Ethiopia contains a regnal list that matches closely with the one copied by Tafari.[5] The first edition from 1922 included a list of monarchs who reigned after the birth of Christ, beginning with Bazen (8 BC).[40] The sixth edition from 1965 expanded the list to include monarchs who reigned from Akhunas Saba II (1930 BC) onwards, corresponding with the Ag'azyan and Menelik dynasties of Tafari's list.[41] The first edition does refer to the earlier dynasties of Ori and Kam and provides some background information on them, despite not including them in the regnal list at the end of the book.[42] The longer text Ya-Ityopya Mangist Tarik originally contained more in-depth information on all the dynasties that appear on Tafari's version of the regnal list.[43]
In recent years, there has been more credible and conclusive evidence that some of Alaqa Taye's manuscripts were acquired by Heruy Wolde Selassie and published as his own works, including Wazema.[44] Such evidence strengthens the possibility that Taye wrote the original regnal list instead of Selassie. Ya-Ityopya Hizb Tarik preceded the publication of Heruy Wolde Selassie's book Wazema by at least seven years.[5]
Numerous regnal lists of Ethiopian monarchs from before 1922 are known to exist and show a clear influence on the compiling of the 1922 list. Some lists date back to the 13th century and are reliable for the period of the Solomonic dynasty, but are often based on legendary memories for the era of the Kingdom of Aksum.[46] These lists allow chroniclers to provide proof of legitimacy for the Solomonic dynasty by linking it back to the Axumite period.[47] The lists were also intended to fill in gaps between major events, such as the meeting of Makeda and Solomon in the 10th century BC, the arrival of Frumentius in the early 4th century and the rise of the Zagwe dynasty in the 10th century.[48] However, many regnal lists show great variations in the names of the Axumite monarchs, with only a few, such as Menelik I, Bazen, Abreha and Atsbeha and Kaleb, frequently appearing across the majority of lists. The 1922 regnal list notably tries to accommodate all these differing traditions by including the majority of the different kings into one longer line of succession.
Various Biblical figures are included on the 1922 regnal list. Three of Noah's descendants are named as founders or ancestors of the first three dynasties; Aram, Ham and Joktan, with some of their sons and descendants also appearing on the list. Other Biblical figures include Zerah the Cushite and the Queen of Sheba, whom Ethiopians call "Makeda". According to Ethiopian tradition Makeda was an ancestor of the Solomonic dynasty and mother of Menelik I, whose father was king Solomon of Israel. The meeting of Makeda and Solomon is recorded in the text Kebra Nagast. The Biblical events of the flood and the fall of the Tower of Babel are both included in the chronology of the regnal list, dated respectively to 3244 BC and 2713 BC, with the 531-year period in between an interregnum where no kings are named. Another Biblical story included is that of the Ethiopian eunuch who visited Jerusalem during the reign of the 169th sovereign Garsemot Kandake.
Coptic and Arabic influences
The first dynasty of the regnal list, the Tribe of Ori, is taken from medieval Coptic and Arabic texts on the kings of Egypt who ruled before the Great Flood. Louis J. Morié recorded a similar list of monarchs to those that appear on the 1922 list.[49] Morié noted the regnal list he saw was recorded by the Copts in their annals and was found in both Coptic and Arabic tradition.[50] He noted there had originally been a list of 40 kings, but only 19 of them had been preserved up to the early 20th century.[51] He believed that the regnal list originated from the works of Murtada ibn al-Afif, an Arab writer from the 12th century who wrote a number of works, though only one, titled The Prodigies of Egypt, has partially survived to the present day.[51][52]Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam's statement "what we say from the historians of the ancients is from Murtad and the Azurotet of Egypt" seems to confirm Kropp's theory.[45]
Manfred Kropp theorized the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list may have been influenced by the works of Ibn al-Rāhib, a 13th-century Coptic historian whose works were translated into Ge'ez by Ethiopian writer Enbaqom in the 16th century, and Jirjis al-Makin Ibn al-'Amid, another 13th century Coptic historian whose work Al-Majmu' al-Mubarak (The Blessed Collection) was also translated around the same time. Both writers partially based their information on ancient history from the works of Julius Africanus and through him quote the historical traditions of Egypt as recorded by Manetho. Jirgis was known as "Wälda-Amid" in Ethiopia.[53] Kropp believed that some of the names of the early part of Tafari's regnal list were taken from a regnal list included within Jirgis' text which draws upon traditions from Manetho and the Old Testament.[54]
A medieval Arab text called Akhbar al-Zaman (The History of Time), dated to between 940 and 1140, may have been an earlier version of the regnal list Morié saw.[55] It is likely based on earlier works such as those of Abu Ma'shar (dated to c. 840–860).[55] The authorship is unknown, but it may have been written by historian Al-Masudi based on earlier Arab, Christian and Greek sources.[55] Another possible author is Ibrahim ibh Wasif Shah who lived during the Twelfth century.[55] The text contains a collection of lore about Egypt and the wider world in the age before the Great Flood and after it.[55] Included is a list of kings of Egypt who ruled before the Great Flood and this list shows some similarities with the list of kings of the "Tribe of Ori or Aram" included on Tafari's list, who also ruled before the Great Flood. Several kings show similarities in names and chronological order, though not all kings on one list appear on the other.
A number of Coptic monks from Egypt came to Ethiopia in the 13th century and brought with them many books written in Coptic and Arabic. These monks also translated many works into Ge'ez.[56] It is possible that the legends from Akhbar al-Zaman may have entered Ethiopia during this time.
Reconstructions of six statues of Kushite kings discovered at Dukki-Gel in Sudan
Contemporary Egyptology played a large influence on the regnal list, as evidenced by the high number of names from Ancient Egypt and the Kingdom of Kush. Many of the Egyptian and Kushite names included on the list belong to monarchs who did not rule the region of modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, and often have reign dates that do no match historical dates used by modern-day archaeologists. The rulers numbered 88 to 96 on the list are the High Priests of Amun who were the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt during the time of the Twenty-first dynasty (c. 1077–943 BC). Several other kings on the list have names that are clearly influenced by those of Egyptian pharaohs; Senefrou (8), Amen I (28), Amen II (43), Ramenpahte (44), Tutimheb (53), Amen Emhat I (63), Amen Emhat II (83), Amen Hotep (102), Ramissu (103) and Apras (127). Kushite rulers include the pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, namely Piye (106), Kashta (108), Sabaka (109), Taharqa (111), Tantamani (114) and Shebitku (123), as well as monarchs who ruled in later periods such as Aktisanes (65), Aspelta (118), Harsiotef (119), Nastasen (120), Arakamani (138) and Arqamani (145). There are also six queens given the name "Kandake" on the list (110, 135, 137, 144, 162, 169).
The Axumite empire at its maximum extent of influence.
Louis J. Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie served as the main source for these Egyptian and Nubian monarchs and the regnal order they are presented in on the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list.[3] However, there are other reasons why the author of this regnal list felt that the inclusion of Egyptian and Nubian monarchs was appropriate for a historical outline of Ethiopia/Abyssinia. One reason is due to the Axumite conquest of Meroë, the last capital of the Kingdom of Kush, by King Ezana in c. 325 AD.[57] It was from this point onward that the Axumites began referring to themselves as "Ethiopians", the Greco-Roman term previously used largely for the Kushites.[58] Following this, the inhabitants of Axum (modern-day Ethiopia and Eritrea) were able to claim lineage from the "Ethiopians" or "Aethiopians" mentioned in the Bible who were actually Kushites. Professor of Anthropology Carolyn Fluehr-Lobban believed the inclusion of Kushite rulers on the 1922 regnal list suggests that the traditions of ancient Nubia were considered culturally compatible with those of Axum.[59] Makeda, the Biblical Queen of Sheba, was referred to as "Candace" or "Queen Mother" in the Kebra Nagast,[60] suggesting a cultural connection between Ethiopia and the ancient kingdom of Kush. Portuguese missionary Francisco Álvares, who travelled to Ethiopia in 1520, recorded one Ethiopian tradition which claimed that Yeha was "the favourite residence of Queen Candace, when she honoured the country with her presence".[61]
The world according to Herodotus. He defined "Aethiopes" as being south of Egypt and including Meroe.
E. A. Wallis Budge theorized that one of the reasons why the name "Ethiopia" was applied to Abyssinia was because Syrian monks identified Kush and Nubia with Abyssinia when translating the Bible from Greek to Ge'ez.[62] Budge further noted that translators of the Bible into Greek identified Kush with Ethiopia and this was carried over into the translation from Greek to Ge'ez.[63] Louis J. Morié likewise believed the adoption of the word "Ethiopia" by the Abyssinians was due to their desire to search for their origins in the Bible and coming across the word "Ethiopia" in Greek translations.[64] Historian Adam Simmons noted the 3rd century Greek translation of the Bible translated the Hebrewtoponym "Kūš" into "Aethiopia".[65] He argued that Abyssinia did not cement its "Ethiopian" identity until the translation of the Kebra Nagast from Arabic to Ge'ez during the reign of Amda Seyon I (r. 1314–1344).[65]
E. A. Wallis Budge argued that it was unlikely that the "Ethiopians" mentioned in ancient Greek writings were the Abyssinians, but instead were far more likely to be the Nubians of Meroë.[66] He believed the native name of the region around Axum was "Habesh" from which "Abyssinia" is derived and originating in the name of the Habasha tribe from southern Arabia. He did note however that the modern day people of the region did not like this term and preferred the name "Ethiopia" due to its association with Kush.[63] The Kushites are not known to have used the term "Ethiopian" to refer to themselves, however Silko, the first Christian Nubian king of Nobatia, in the early sixth century described himself as "Chieftain of the Nobadae and of all the Ethiopians".[67] The earliest known Greek writings that mention "Aethiopians" date to the 8th century BC, in the writings of Homer and Hesiod. Herodotus, in his work Histories (c. 430 BC), defined "Aethiopia" as beginning at the island of Elephantine and including all land south of Egypt, with the capital being Meroe.[68] This geographical definition confirms that in ancient times the term "Aethiopia" was commonly used to refer to Nubia and the Kingdom of Kush rather than modern day Ethiopia. The earliest known writer to use the name "Ethiopia" for the region of the Kingdom of Axum was Philostorgius in c. 440 AD.[69]
Scottish traveller James Bruce, in his multi-volume work Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile included a drawing of a stele found in Axum and brought back to Gondar by the Ethiopian emperor. The stele had carved figures of Egyptian gods and was inscribed with hieroglyphs. E. A. Wallis Budge believed the stele to be a "Cippi of Horus" which were placed in homes and temples to keep evil spirits away. He noted that these date from the end of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty (c. 664–525 BC) onwards. Budge believed this was proof of contacts between Egypt and Axum in the early 4th century BC.[70] Archaeological excavations in the Kassala region have also revealed direct contact with Pharaonic Egypt. Some tombs excavated in the Yeha region, the likely capital of the Dʿmt kingdom, contained imported albastron dated to c. 770–404 BC which had a Napatan or Egyptian origin.[71]
Budge noted that none of the Egyptian and Kushite kings on the 1922 list appear on other known regnal lists from Ethiopia. He believed that contemporary Ethiopian priests had been "reading a modern European History of Egypt" and had incorporated in the regnal list Egyptian pharaohs who had "laid Nubia and other parts of the Sudan under tribute", as well as the names of various Kushite kings and Priest kings.[72] To support his argument, he stated that while the names of Abyssinian kings have meanings, the names of Egyptian kings would be meaningless if translated into the Ethiopian language.[72] Manfred Kropp likewise noted that no Ethiopian manuscript prior to the 1922 regnal list included names of monarchs resembling those used by Egyptian rulers.[1] A comparison of known Ethiopian regnal lists shows that most of the monarchs on the 1922 list with Egyptian or Nubian names do not have these elements in their names on other regnal lists (see Regnal lists of Ethiopia). For example, the 102nd king on Tafari's list, Amen Hotep Zagdur, only appears as "Zagdur" on earlier regnal lists.[73] The next king, Aksumay Ramissu, is only known as "Aksumay" on earlier lists, while the 106th king, Abralyus Wiyankihi II, was previously only known as "Abralyus".[73] The 111th king, Tsawi Terhak Warada Nagash, is a combination of multiple kings. One king named "Sawe" or "Za Tsawe" is listed as the fifth king following Menelik I according to some lists, while another king named "Warada Nagash" is named as the eighth king following Menelik I on different lists.[73] No known list includes both kings, and the 1922 list combined the two different kings as a single entry, with the addition of the name "Terhak", to be equated with the Kushite Pharaoh Taharqa, who otherwise does not appear on earlier Ethiopian regnal lists.[73] Also missing from earlier Ethiopian regnal lists are the "Kandake" queens.
Herihor, High Priest of Amun of Upper Egypt between c. 1080 and 1074 BC, shown here with wife Nodjmet
The inclusion of the High Priests of Amun who ruled Upper Egypt between c. 1080 and 943 BC can be directly traced to Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie and contemporary Egyptology.[3] The association between these Egyptian High Priests and Aethiopia was particularly strong in European Egyptological writings in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During this period, several major Egyptologists (such as Heinrich Brugsch, James Breasted and George Reisner) believed that the rise of the Kush kingdom was due to the influence of the High Priests of Amun moving into Nubia towards the end of the Twentieth Dynasty because of political conflict arising at the end of the New Kingdom.[74] Brugsch in particular entertained the idea that the early Kushite kings were lineal descendants of the priests from Egypt, though this was explicitly rejected by Breasted.[74] Later Egyptologists A. J. Arkell and Walter Emery theorized that a priestly "government in exile" had influenced the Kushite kingdom.[75] E. A. Wallis Budge agreed with these ideas and suggested that the High Priests of Amun moved south to Nubia due to the rise of the Libyan pharaohs in Lower Egypt, and consolidated their high position by intermarrying with Nubian women. Budge further theorised that the name of the Nubian pharaoh Piye or "Piankhi" was taken from that of the High Priest of Amun Piankh and he was possibly Piankh's descendant.[76] Such ideas around the Kushite monarchy originating from this specific line of priests are now considered outdated, but the popularity of these theories in the early 20th century explains their inclusion, in almost exact chronological order, on the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list.
Greek sources
A black archer whose feet and legs face left, upper body facing right, flanked by two Amazones. Mayence identifies the black person with Memnon, whereas Beazley and Bothmer regard him as an attendant of Memnon. Artist: Swing Painter Origin: Attica Category: vase painting Material: terracotta Dating: -460 – -440 Inventory A130[77]
A number of figures from Greek mythology are included on the regnal list, in most cases due to being described as "Aethiopian" in ancient sources. Louis J. Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie is largely responsible for their inclusion. His book included Memnon, a mythical king of "Aethiopia" who fought in the Trojan War, his father Tithonus, and his brother Emathion, who are all included on the regnal list under the names Amen Emhat II (83), Titon Satiyo (81) and Hermantu (82).[78]Cassiopeia was also mentioned in Morié's book, but he confusingly uses the name for two different women.[79] This results in the 1922 regnal list including Cassiopeia under the name of Kasiyope (49) while her husband Cepheus is listed four hundred years later under the name Kefe (71).
The list additionally included figures who were not part of Morié's narrative, showing that the author used other sources to build the regnal list. Diodorus' work (including Bibliotheca Historia) influenced the inclusion of the "Aethiopian" king Actisanes (65) and the Egyptian king Mandes (66).[80]Herodotus' Histories also had some influence on the regnal list, with the various names of rulers being re-used for "Ethiopian" monarchs, such as Nitocris (162), Proteus (67), Sabakon (122), Apries (127).[81]Manetho's Aegyptiaca is another source for certain names on the regnal list, such as Sebikos (123), Tarakos (125) and Sabakon (122).[82]
Conflict with other Ethiopian traditions
The list occasionally contradicts other Ethiopian traditions. One example is that of king Angabo I, who is placed in the middle of the Ag'azyan dynasty on this list but in earlier traditions was the founder of a new dynasty.[83] In both cases the dating is given as the 14th century BC. E. A. Wallis Budge noted that there were differing versions of the chronological order of the Ethiopian kings, with some lists stating that a king named Aithiopis was the first to rule while other lists claim that the first king was Adam.[84] Tafari's list instead begins with Aram.
Responses to the regnal list
Contemporary historian Manfred Kropp described the regnal list as an artfully woven document developed as a rational and scientific attempt by an educated Ethiopian from the early 20th century to reconcile historical knowledge of Ethiopia. Kropp noted that the regnal list has often been viewed by historians as little more than an example of a vague notion of historical tradition in north-east Africa. He added that the working methods and sources used by the author of the list remain unclear.[17] Kropp further stated that despite some rulers' names having astonishing similarities to those of Egyptian and Meroitic/Kushite rulers, there has been little attempt to critically examine the regnal list in relation to other Ethiopian sources.[85] He noted that Tafari's regnal list was the first Ethiopian regnal list that attempted to provide names of kings from the 970th year of the world's creation onwards without any chronological gaps. In particular, it was the first Ethiopian regnal list to consistently fill in all dates from the time of Solomon to the Zagwe dynasty. Kropp felt that the regnal list was a result of incorporating non-native traditions of "Aethiopia" into native Ethiopian history.[1]
Egyptologist E. A. Wallis Budge (1857–1934) was dismissive of the claims of great antiquity made by the Abyssinians, whom he described as having a "passionate desire to be considered a very ancient nation", which had been aided by the "vivid imagination of their scribes" who borrowed traditions from the Semites (such as Yamanites, Himyarites and Hebrews) and modified them to "suit [their] aspirations". He noted the lack of pre-Christian regnal lists and believed there was no 'kingdom' of Abyssinia/Ethiopia until the time of king Zoskales (c. 200 AD). Budge additionally noted that all extant manuscripts date to the 17th–19th centuries and believed that any regnal lists found in them originated from Arab and Coptic writers.[2] Budge felt the 1922 regnal list "proves" that "almost all kings of Abyssinia were of Asiatic origin" and descended from "Southern or Northern Semites" before the reign of Yekuno Amlak.[86] However, native Ethiopian rule before Yekuno Amlak is evidenced by the kingdoms of D'mt (c. 980–400 BC) and Aksum (c. 150 BC–960 AD), as well as by the rule of the Zagwe dynasty.
The Geographical Journal reviewed In the Country of the Blue Nile in 1928, and noted the regnal list contained "many more names [...] than in previously published lists" and was "evidently a careful compilation" which helped to "clear up the tangled skein of Ethiopian history".[87] However, the reviewer did also notice that it "[contained] discrepancies" which Rey "[made] no attempt to clear up".[87] The reviewer pointed to how king Dil Na'od is said to have reigned for 10 years from 910 to 920, yet travel writer James Bruce previously stated the deposition of this dynasty occurred in 960, 40 years later.[87] The reviewer did admit, however, that Egyptologist Henry Salt's dating of this event to 925 may have had "more reason" to it compared to Bruce's dating, considering that Salt's dating is seemingly backed up by Tafari's regnal list.[87]
The Washington Post made use of the regnal list when reporting on the coronation of Haile Selassie in 1930. The paper reported that Selassie would become "the 336th sovereign of [the Ethiopian] empire" which was "founded in the ninety-seventh [sic] year after the creation of the world" and as such his reign would begin in "the 6,460th year of the reign of the Ethiopian dynasty".[88] The newspaper noted that Adam was no longer "claimed by Ethiopians as the original ancestor of the kings of Ethiopia" and instead the modern Abyssinians claimed their first king was "Ori, or Aram, the son of Shem".[88] The same article mentioned the 531-year gap between the Flood and the fall of the Tower of Babel, during which time "42 different Ethiopian sovereigns ruled Africa", though the regnal list itself did not provide any names for this time period.[88]
Regnal list
Notes
Dating system: The regnal list uses the Ethiopian Calendar. This calendar is 8 years behind the Gregorian calendar from January 1 to September 10 and 7 years behind from September 11 to December 31.[89]
Names and regnal numbering: Exact names of monarchs can differ between versions of the list, with the versions of the list written by Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam and Heruy Wolde Selassie occasionally having expanded or additional names for some rulers compared to those on the list quoted by Charles F. Rey. This affects the regnal numbering of monarchs, which is sometimes incorrect on certain versions of the list. Transliteration of names from Geʽez to English has also resulted in some variation in the exact spellings of names.[b] The following list combines names across different versions of the regnal list and uses adjusted spellings of names for consistency.
Multiple names: Many monarchs have multiple names listed, similar to the way that the Emperors of Ethiopia who reigned from 1270 to 1974 often chose a throne name upon their accession to the throne. The few cases where the throne name is specified, it is the second name of that monarch.[c] Exceptions to this are the emperors Iyasu I and Iyasu II, who have their throne names placed before birth names. The tables below list the "first" and "second" names of each monarch based on the order they are presented on the original regnal list.
Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia gives the following information on the "Tribe of Orit":[94]
"Those who before all others left Asia earliest and who entered Ethiopia and occupied the country are called the tribe of Orit. Their father [...] was one of the sons of Adam, called Ori or Aram. He and his line, twenty-one kings, ruled in Ethiopia from the year [970] of the worlduntil 2256 of the world [...] During the time of their last King, Soliman Tagi, in the era of Noah, they were wiped out and brought to an end by the devastating flood."
The first dynasty of this list consists of 21 monarchs who ruled before the Biblical "Great Flood". This dynasty is legendary and borrowed from a list of pre-Flood kings of Egypt that is found in medieval Coptic and Arabic texts. Louis J. Morié recorded a list of 19 monarchs in his 1904 book Histoire de L'Éthiopie.[49] Morié noted that the kings were supposed to be rulers of Egypt, but he personally believed they had actually ruled "Ethiopia" (i.e. Nubia).[49] He pointed to a story of the third king, Gankam, who had a palace built beyond the Equator at the Mountains of the Moon, as proof that these kings resided in Aethiopia.[95][52] The kings of this dynasty are described as Priest-kings in Coptic tradition and were called the "Soleyman" dynasty.[52] While the original Coptic tradition called the first king "Aram", in reference to the son of Shem of the same name, this regnal list calls the king "Ori or Aram". The name "Ori" may have originated from Morié's claim that this dynasty was called the "Aurites", and that Aram had inspired the name of his country, which was called "Aurie" or "Aeria".[96]
Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam confirmed that "Murtad and the Azurotet of Egypt" were useful sources for understanding ancient history, referring to Murtada ibn al-Afif's 12th century text The Prodiges of Egypt.[45][52] While different from Morié's list, Murtada's list can be seen as an earlier incarnation of the same line of legendary kings. Murtada's list is based on the earlier text Akhbar al-zaman (The History of Time) dated to the mid-10th to mid-12th centuries.[55]
The only rulers of this dynasty who do not originate from the Coptic Antediluvian regnal list are "Senefrou" and "Assa", who E. A. Wallis Budge believed where the historical Egyptian pharaohs Sneferu and Djedkare Isesi.
Heruy Wolde Selassie ignored this dynasty on his version of the regnal list.[20] Ethiopian historian Fisseha Yaze Kassa, in his book Ethiopia's 5,000-year history, completely omitted this dynasty and instead begins with the Ham/Kam dynasty.[97]
E. A. Wallis Budge believed the reason for the regnal list beginning with Aram instead of Ham was because contemporary Ethiopians wanted to distance themselves from the Curse of Ham.[98] The medieval Ethiopian text Kebra Nagast stated that "God decreed sovereignty for the seed of Shem, and slavery for the seed of Ham".[98]
Not to be confused with the Biblical figure Nimrod.
His original name was Youssef and he was a minister to king Elaryan according to Morié.
Known as Shamrud in Akhbar al-zaman and Semrod in The Prodigies of Egypt.
Son of Harsal/Sahlan according to Akhbar al-zaman.
Two kings named "Josedon" and "Sariac" reigned between this king and Saloug according to The Prodigies of Egypt. These kings are omitted from this regnal list.
Not mentioned in Akhbar al-zaman, but this text states that Shamrud/Nimroud was succeeded by an unnamed wife as regent for their son Tusidun for six years.
Known as Sahluq in Akhbar al-zaman and Sahalouc in The Prodigies of Egypt.
Two kings named "Tusidun" and "Sarbaq" reigned between Shamrud/Nimroud and this king according to Akhbar al-zaman. Neither of these kings are mentioned on this list.
Originally the 34th ruler of this dynasty in Coptic tradition according to Morié.
"After the extinction of these people [The Tribe of Ori] in the great flood, until the destruction of the tower of Babel and the scattering of people and the differentiation of languages in the year [2787] the entire area and the country of Ethiopia was an empty land without native people. After this the tribe of Kam came and inherited her."
The Tower of Babel was, according to the Bible, built by humans in Shinar at a time when humanity spoke a single language. The tower was intended to reach the sky, but this angered God, who confounded their speech and made them unable to understand each other and caused humanity to be scattered across the world. This story serves as an origin myth to explain why so many different languages are spoken around the world.
Some older Ethiopian regnal lists state the monarchs who reigned between the Great Flood and the fall of the Tower of Babel were pagans, idolators and worshippers of the "serpent", and thus were not worthy to be named.[98]
"Sovereignty of the Tribe of Kam after the fall of the Tower of Babel".[108]
Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia gave the following background for the tribe of Kam or "Kusa":[109]
"Kam came to Ethiopia crossing the Bab il-Mandäb from Asia. This was in the year 2787 of the world, in the 2,713th year before the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ."
"Kam ruled Ethiopia for 78 years and, returning to Asia intending to seize Syria, he fought against the sons of Sem and died in battle. But his sons set the eldest brother Kugan to rule over themselves, and inherited Ethiopia. The tribe of Kam with their descendants, 25 kings in all, reigned and ruled Ethiopia for [728] years from 2787 to the year 3515 of the world."
This dynasty begins with Ham, the second son of the Biblical prophet Noah, whose descendants populated the African continent and adjoining parts of Asia according to the Bible. Ham was the father of Cush (Kush/Nubia), Mizraim (Egypt), Canaan (Levant) and Put (Libya or Punt).
Taye's statement that Kam was killed in battle while attempting to invade Syria was inspired by Louis J. Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie, in which he claimed that Kam/Ham was killed at the age of 576 in a battle against the Assyrians after attempting to invade their territories.[110] Morié also claimed that Kam ruled over Upper Egypt and Aethiopia and his name inspired the ancient of name of Egypt, Kmt.[111] According to Heruy Wolde Selassie's book Wazema, the Kamites originated from the Middle East and conquered Axum, Meroe, Egypt and North Africa.[112] This claim also likely originated from Louis J. Morié, who stated that Ham arrived in Aethiopia after the Deluge and his descendants ruled over different parts of Aethiopia and Egypt.[113]
Some earlier Ethiopian traditions presented a very different line of kings descending from Ham. E. A. Wallis Budge stated that in his time there was a common belief in Ethiopia that the people were descended from Ham, his son Cush and Cush's son Ethiopis, who is not named in the Bible, and from whom the country of Ethiopia gets its name.[114] Some regnal lists explicitly state the names "Ethiopia" and "Axum" come from descendants of Ham that are not named in the Bible.[115]
This dynasty has several rulers whose names are inspired by ancient Egyptian names, such as Amen, Horkam and Ramenpahte. E. A. Wallis Budge theorized the name of the first ruler, Kam, was actually a reference to "k.mt", the name of Egypt before the Greco-Roman period.[98]Peter Truhart believed this king's inclusion on the regnal list represented Egyptian contacts with Punt (which he identifies with modern-day Ethiopia) that took place around 3000 BC.[116]
Ethiopian historian Fisseha Yaze Kassa's book Ethiopia's 5,000-year history begins this dynasty with Noah and omits Habassi, but otherwise has a similar line of kings as this list.[97]Heruy Wolde Selassie omitted the first three rulers of this dynasty in his book Wazema and begins the dynasty with Sebtah in 2545 BC.[20]Peter Truhart, in his book Regents of Nations, dated the monarchs of this dynasty to 2585–1930 BC and stated that the capital during this period was called Mazez.[116] He identified Kout as the first king of this dynasty instead of Kam.[116] Truhart called the monarchs from Kout to Lakniduga the "Dynasty of Kush" based at Mazez and stated they ruled from 2585 to 2145 BC,[116] while the monarchs from Manturay to Piori I are listed as the "Kings of Ethiopia and Meroe" who ruled from 2145 to 1930 BC.[117]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam the tribe of Kam or "Kusa" was driven from the highlands of Ethiopia to the lowlands by the Ag'azyan dynasty that ruled Ethiopia after them.[118]
Heruy Wolde Selassie's version of the regnal list includes additional or alternate names for some monarchs, which are placed in the 'second name' column below.[119] Some of these names are taken from Ethiopian regnal lists.
Key for sources
A
Indicates name originated from Abyssinian tradition.
Ethiopian historian Fisseha Yaze Kassa provided alternate reign dates for this king of 3500–2787 BC (713 years) and listed Noah as the first king of this dynasty with reign dates of 3844–3500 BC (344 years).[97]
Often considered to be a representation of the Kingdom of Kush in modern-day Sudan. Some translations of the Bible identify Kush with "Aethiopia", leading to the traditional Ethiopian identification with ancient Kush, which is seen throughout this list.
Ethiopian historian Fisseha Yaze Kassa provided alternate reign dates for this king of 2787–2545 BC (242 years).[97]
An Ethiopian tradition states that Sebtah was king of Kush and Wurd Bashir was the capital during his reign.[124] This legend states that he travelled to the source of the Nile and built Wurd Bashir with a great wall and nine gates.[125]
Heruy Wolde Selassie listed Sabeta as an alternate name for this king.[119]
In Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie she was a Nubian courtesan who drowned all her lovers in the Red Sea until she married Horkam, who took the throne and had her executed.
This queen's name could be based on the ancient Egyptian word "Nehesy" meaning "the Nubian".[126]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam it was during the reign of this queen, who he calls Kasiyoni, in the year 2421 B.C./3079 A.M., that the Sinites, ancestors of the Shanqella tribe, arrived in Ethiopia.[118] The Shanqella lived in highland Ethiopia for 440 years until they were driven to the lowlands by the ancestors of the Ag'azyan people.[118]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam, it was in the 15th year of this king's reign that Aynar, son of Arwadi ("the Arvadite") came to Ethiopia and was the ancestor of the Qemant tribe.[118] Aynar and his wife Intalan came to Ethiopia due to a famine in Canaan.[118]
Son of Horkam in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie. Morié also claimed this king founded the city of "Hasabo", which later became Meroe. This narrative is partially based on Josephus's text Antiquities of the Jews, in which he described Sheba as a walled city in Aethiopia that was renamed Meroe by Cambyses II.[129]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam, it was in the 15th year of this king's reign (2360 B.C./3140 A.M.) that the tribe of Weyto, descended from the Zemarites, entered Ethiopia.[130] They had arrived in Ethiopia due to a famine in Egypt and Sudan.[130]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the first ruler of Aethiopia to regulate legislation and Solar worship. Morié identified him with the Iranian god Mithras and with the Egyptian god Mentu.
Could be the Biblical figure Sabtechah, a son of Cush, based on the alternate name "Kepheas" given by Morié.[135]
Morié claimed it was during the reign of this king that a Kushite tribe went to Chaldea and lived alongside the Jewish population there. This supposedly was the reason why Tacitus mistakenly claimed that the Jews were descended from the Aethiopians.
The alternate name "Far'on" is likely meant to refer to the Egyptian title Pharaoh.
42
Sousel I
Atozanis
20 years
2055–2035 BC
3445–3465
M
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as a king of Aethiopia under the name "Snouka Menken", though with "Attozanes" as one of his alternate names.
Morié identified this king with Actisanes, a legendary "Aethiopian" king who is mentioned in Greek writings. Morié claimed that he defeated the last king of the Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt and founded the Fourteenth dynasty, ruling Egypt for 13 years before being expelled by an Egyptian king. This was partially inspired by a narrative told by Diodorus.[80]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as an Aethiopian nobleman who was supposed to marry a daughter of king "Ba-en-Khons", but instead she was taken by the king to be his own wife.[139]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the king who ruled at the time of Aethiopia's conquest by the "Hyksos" (the "Ag'azyan Dynasty" of this list).
According to Heruy Wolde Selassie, this king was defeated by Rama of India.[112] This narrative was inspired by Morié's Historie de l'Ethiopie, in which he claimed that Rama had a vast empire stretching across India and Arabia and had defeated the Egyptian Pharaoh. According to Morié, the Ethiopian king, "Poeri I", then became a tributary to Rama.[139]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's The History of the People of Ethiopia, it was during the reign of this king that the tribes of Saba, Abal and Ofir left Yemen and settled in Ethiopia.[140]
Ancient blocks from Yeha, the likely capital of D'mt, with Sabaean inscriptions
"Agdazyan [sic] dynasty of the posterity of the kingdom of Joctan."[141]
Note: Historian Manfred Kropp noted the word "Agdazyan" is likely a transcribal error and meant to say "Ag'azyan", as the Ethiopian syllable signs da and 'a are relatively easy to confuse with each other.[133]
"The tribe of Yoqt'an are the grandchildren of Sem. Sem begat fifteen children. Of the fifteen Arfaksad was the third. Arfaksad begat Qaynan; Qaynan begat Sala; Sala begot 'Ebor and 'Ebor begat Falek and Yoqt'an. [...] Yoqt'an begat thirteen children [...] As for their territory, it was in Asia from Mesha to Śīfar and as far as the eastern mountains. (Genesis 10.30).
When their territory became too small and restricted for them, five of the thirteen children of Yoqt'an, Saba, Awfir, Hawila, Obal and Abima'el, departed Asia in a great multitude and migrated, journeying to Yemen. When this tribe of Yoqt'an [...] reached Yemen, they paid tribute to the Kusa of Yemen [but] without agreeing to an alliance. Later, however, they saw their weakness and by trickery and other means caused rebellion among the Yemenite Kusa, and, making king a brave and wise one of their own race called 'Yaroba', became the lords of all Yemen. At the end of the reign of the tribe of Kam, the tenth year of the reign of P'i'ori I and the 3,510th year of the world [...] these people were called 'Ag'azyan'. The tribe of Yoqt'an of the tribe of Sem left Yemen in a great multitude and crossed the Bab Il-Mändäb and entered Ethiopia.
In that period the tribe of Yoqt'an were called at different times by five names. They were called 'Saba', 'Bädäw', 'Irräñña', 'Tigri', and 'Ag'azyan'.
Ityopp'is was the son of Bulqaya and the grandson of Akhunas known as Saba II. His mother, the daughter of the king of Tut, was called 'Aglä'e'. [...] Ityopp'is I ruled for fifty-six years, from the 3644th to the 3700[th] year of the world, 1856-1800 B.C., and the country was called Ityopp'is after his name. [...] After Ityopp'is died the king's son Lankdun, whose second name was Nowär'ori, succeeded him.
The sons of Ityopp'is I were five; they are Lankdun, Saba, Noba, Bäläw, and Käläw. The first son Lakndun inherited the kingship, but the other four divided up the land of the state among themselves and held it. Saba is the ancestor of the people who settled in the country now called Tigre; the country used to be called Saba after his name. [...] that the country was called Saba is for Saba II, grandfather of Ityopp'is, and not for Saba, son of Ityopp'is.
The third dynasty of this regnal list is descended from Joktan, grandson of Shem and great-grandson of Noah. According to Genesis 10:7 and 1 Chronicles 1:9, Sheba was a grandson of Cush through Raamah, which provides a link between this Semitic dynasty and the Hamitic dynasty that precedes it. The dynasty ends with the Queen of Sheba, whose name is Makeda in Ethiopian tradition.
This section of the regnal list is heavily influenced by Louis J. Morié's book Histoire de L'Éthiopie, with the majority of monarchs having similar names and order of succession to those found in Morié's book.[143] This results in a number of monarchs whose names clearly reference ancient Egypt and Kush, most notably the line of High Priests of Amun that reigned near the end of this dynasty. These priests however did not rule modern-day Ethiopia, but rather ruled over or had some contact with ancient Nubia and Kush, which is equated with Aethiopia in some translations of the Bible.
This regnal list adds monarchs from Abyssinian tradition within the larger narrative of Morié. These monarchs are Angabo I (no. 74), who founded a new dynasty after killing the serpent king Arwe, and his successors Zagdur I (no. 77), Za Sagado (no. 80), Tawasya (no. 97) and Makeda (no. 98) (See Regnal lists of Ethiopia for more information).[144][145] There is also another king named Ethiopis, who Ethiopian tradition credits with inspiring the name of the country.
The word Ag'azyan means "free" or "to lead to freedom" in Ge'ez.[146][112] According to both Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia and Heruy Wolde Selassie's Wazema, this originated from the liberation of Ethiopia from the rule of the Kamites/Hamites and three of Joktan's sons divided Ethiopia between themselves. Sheba received Tigray, Obal received Adal and Ophir received Ogaden.[140][112]E. A. Wallis Budge theorised the term Aga'azyan referred to several tribes who migrated from Arabia to Africa either at the same time as or after the Habashat had migrated. He stated that the word "Ge'ez" had come from "Ag'azyan".[146] The term "Ag'azyan" also refers to the Agʿazi region of the Axumite empire located in modern-day Eastern Tigray and Southern Eritrea.
Sheba is usually considered by historians to have been the south Arabian kingdom of Saba, in an area that later became part of the Aksumite Empire. The Kebra Nagast however specifically states that Sheba was located in Ethiopia.[147] This has led to some historians arguing that Sheba may have been located in a region in Tigray and Eritrea, which was once called "Saba". Stuart Munro-Hay noted that the monarchy of Dʿmt called itself "D'amat and Saba" on its own royal inscriptions from c. 800 BC.[148] American historian Donald N. Levine suggested that Sheba may be linked with the historical region of Shewa, where the modern Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is located.[149] Additionally, a Sabaean connection with Ethiopia is evidenced by a number of settlements on the Red Sea coast that emerged around 500 BC and were influenced by Sabaean culture.[150] These people were traders and had their own writing script.[150] Gradually over time their culture merged with that of the local people.[150][151] The Sabaean language was likely the official language of northern Ethiopia during the pre-Axumite period (c. 500 BC to 100 AD).[152] Some historians believe that the kingdom of Dʿmt, located in modern-day Eritrea and Ethiopia, was Sabaean-influenced, possibly due to Sabaean dominance of the Red Sea or due to mixing with the indigenous population.[153][154]
Josephus wrote that that Achaemenid king Cambyses II conquered the capital of Aethiopia and changed its name from "Saba" to "Meroe".[155] Josephus also stated the Queen of Sheba came from this region and was queen of both Egypt and Ethiopia.[156] This suggests that a belief in a connection between Sheba and Kush was already in place by the 1st century AD. Michael of Tinnis, who compiled the History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria in the 11th century, located Sheba in the country of "al-Habasha" (Abyssinia).[157]
Peter Truhart, in his book Regents of Nations, dated the kings from Akbunas Saba II to Lakndun Nowarari to 1930–1730 BC and listed them as a continuation of the line of "Kings of Ethiopia and Meroe" that begun in 2145 BC.[117] Truhart's regnal list then jumps forward and dates the kings from Tutimheb onwards as contemporaries of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth dynasties of Egypt, with a date range of 1552–1185 BC.[117] Truhart also identified modern-day Ethiopia with the Land of Punt.[117] His list however omits the High Priests of Amun from Herihor to Pinedjem II.[78]
The following table uses names that are a combination of those used in Tafari's, Taye Gabra Mariam's and Heruy Wolde Selassie's lists.
Key for sources
A
Indicates name originated from Abyssinian tradition.
Despite sharing a name with Cassiopeia, Morié's original narrative differentiates this queen from the more well-known Cassiopeia/"Kasiyope".[159] Instead, "Kasiyope I" is the name given to a queen of Ethiopia who plotted the assassination of Osiris with Set according to one version of the Osiris myth recounted by Plutarch.[160]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor to "Nekhti I". Morié identified him with the Semitic god Adrammelech.
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, it was in the reign of this king that the ancestors of the Shinasha people arrived in Ethiopia.[162]
Taye stated this king was the son of a man named "Amin".[5]
The name "Ayba" appears on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[131]
Ethiopis, a legendary king in Abyssinian/Ethiopian tradition who inspired the name "Ethiopia".[163][164]
An Ethiopian legend claims that the name "Ethiopia" is derived from the name of king Ethiopis.[163] Likewise, Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder believed that the word "Aethiopia"/"Ethiopia" came from a king named Aethiopis, who was the son of the Roman god Vulcan.[122]
Some Ethiopian traditions trace the word "Ethiopia" to Itan, a Ge'ez word for incense, a reference to the Ethiopian plateau which has long traded in incense.[122]
One Ethiopian tradition states that Etiyopus was a son of Cush and grandson of Kam.[122]
Another tradition additionally claims that Etiyopus' son was named Aksumawi, who had seven sons named Malayka Aksum, Sum, Nafas, Bagi'o, Kuduki, Akhoro and Farheba.[165] The names of Etiyopus' son and grandsons are not found on this regnal list.
According to the Book of Axum, this king built Ethiopia's first capital, Mazaber.[166]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, this king was the son of Bulqaya and Aglä'e, daughter of the king of Tut and was a grandson of Akhunas Saba II.[167]
Some Ethiopian regnal lists claim this king was the first to rule Ethiopia.[168]
One tradition states Etiyopus was buried in Aksum and that fire used to burn in his grave.[169]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie under the name "Atew I (Ethiops)" as the fifth ruler of Aethiopia after the "Hyksos" conquest.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the next known king of Aethiopia after "Atew I". In Morié's narrative, this king's wife was called Ahhotep I and he was the father of Ahmose-Nefertari. The 1922 regnal list however uses different dating making this identification impossible.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Nower-Ari".
In Morié's narrative this king was defeated by Moses as the head of the army of the Pharaoh. Moses married Tutimheb's daughter Tharbis, following a similar account given by Josephus.[172]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie under the name "At-Hor" as a king who was placed on the throne of Aethiopia by the Pharaoh after the defeat of the previous king. He was identified by Morié with Jethro of the Bible.
The ancient Greek god Hephaestus was the father of Ethiopis according to Pliny the Elder.[122] The author of the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list may have combined the two separate narratives of Hephaestus and Jethro into one king.
The name "Her Hator" refers to the Egyptian goddess Hathor.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie under the name "Atew II (Ethiops)". In Morié's narrative, this king's daughter married Danaus, a nomarch of Tanis.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie under the name "Snouka II Menken (Raskhoperen)".
In Morié's narrative, this king was High Priest of Amun and had support from the Egyptians, who were revolting against Akhenaten and the Atenist religion. He was able to defeat Akhenaten became ruler of Egypt for 13 years until his death, afterwards allowing Egyptians to choose a native Egyptian as the next king. The 1922 regnal list however does not align with Morié's dates.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Bennou I" and according to Morié was said to ride a chariot dragged by bulls. Her name supposedly meant "Child of water, of the Nile".
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the son and successor of "Moumeses (Moso)". His name supposedly means "Precious Existence".
Mistakenly listed as female ruler on Tafari's version of the list, possibly due to the misplacing of the sentence "daughter of preceding", which on Taye's list is specified for Mumazes.[180][5]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Arouas" and ruler of Egypt for 2 years before he was expelled by the brother of the Egyptian Pharoah.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Poeri II".
Amenemopet, Viceroy of Kush and son of Paser I/Piori II. Misidentified by Morié as a reigning king of Kush/Aethiopia. In Morié's narrative, this king attempted a revolt against Ramesses II.
The name "Bahas" appears on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183]
Legendary king of AethiopiaActisanes who, according to Diodorus, defeated Pharaoh Ammoses (Ahmose II) and conquered Egypt. While the reign of Ahmose II was much later than the dates for Aktissanis on this list, the reign of Ahmose I did take place around this time.
Possibly based on the historical Kushite king Aktisanes who ruled Nubia in the early third century BC.
A legendary Egyptian king who succeeded Actisanes after his death and recovered Egyptian independence, according to Diodorus Siculus. This king had a labyrinth built into his tomb and this inspired Daedalus who, after visiting Egypt, built a similar labyrinth of Minos, king of Crete.
This king was Egyptian, but may have been mistaken as "Aethiopian" by the author of this list due to directly succeeding Actisanes.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the next known king of Aethiopia after "Amen-em-hat I".
In Morié's narrative, this king arrived in Aethiopia as part of a Hindu colony and was a "hero remarkable for his beauty and size". He ruled Aethiopia after going into exile following the death of his father by suicide. Despite having a "glorious reign" in which he founded "60 cities" and "drained swamps", he was nonetheless put to death by his subjects.
The word "Aethiopian" was sometimes used in ancient times to refer to people in southern India.
Name based on the name of the Egyptian god Khonsu.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the first of the "Bennides" who succeeded "Khonsi". In Morié's narrative, this king settled in Aethiopia due to his sister Europa being kidnapped by the Cretans and Agenor forbidding his sons to return until she was found. He was unpopular because he was considered a usurper and abdicated in favour of his son Cepheus after two years of rule.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Bennou II". In Morié's narrative, this king had 20 sons and 2 daughters, ruled over Syene in Egypt, had the Nasamones of Libya and "Aethiopians" of Gedrosia as his tributes and was deified as the ancient Sicilican god Adranus.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor to "Sebi III" under the name "Se-Khons (Gigon)". In Morié's narrative, it was during this king's reign that an Egyptian prince named "Meneptah", son of Sesostris, fled to Aethiopia and never returned. According to Morié, this king was "probably" killed by Bacchus when he ravaged Aethiopia.
Possibly Danaus, a king of Libya from Greek mythology who is sometimes named as a brother of Cepheus and son of Belus.
Name "Sekones" based on the name of the Egyptian god Khonsu.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Se-Khons".
In Morié's narrative, this king was summoned by Egyptian nobles to declare war on Pharaoh Amenmesse, who was defeated and this resulted in Senuka ruling Egypt for 3 years. However Senuka was later driven out of Egypt by Merneptah-Siptah. He held Seti, son of Merneptah, prisoner in Aethiopia but a compromise was reached. Morié's interpretation of events is at odds with present-day Egyptology and the dating of the 1922 regnal list for this king does not line up with Morié's dating.
Accorging to Morié's narrative, this king had the noses of thieves cut off before they were sent to Rhinocorura, located on the Egypt-Syria border (This story is inspired by that of Actisanes, who, according to Diodorus Siculus, founded Rhinocorura and conquered Egypt in the reign of pharaoh "Amasis").
A king from Abyssinian tradition who killed a mythical serpent king named Arwe.
Some variations of the Arwe myth claim that Angabo was of non-royal origin and was made king as reward for slaying Arwe.[169] This version of the legend states that Angabo was a stranger who saved Makeda (the future Queen of Sheba) from being sacrificed to Arwe and that her father was chief minister to king "Za Sebado".[188]
According to some Ethiopian traditions, Angabo was the father of Makeda.[189]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Snouka III".
In Morié's narrative, this king was a grandson of Sabe III (Kefe) and son of Andromeda and Perseus, though had no children of his own. His name apparently meant "The Supreme Hathor" and he drowned in the Erythraean Sea, which gets its name from king "Her Hator II (Erythras)", whose name also influenced the naming of Eritrea.
This ruler is a combination of two kings from different sources. A king named "Nekhti IV" succeeded "Her-Hathor III" in the narrative of Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie.[194] A different king from earlier Ethiopian regnal lists, usually named "Sebado", was the successor of Zagdur and ruler of Ethiopia for 50 years.[145][144]
In Morié's narrative, this king was a combination of several different figures from Greek mythology, with the name "Nekhti" being inspired by Nycteus. His daughter Antiope fled to the court of Apis of Argos, who married her. According to Morié, "Nekhti" was killed in battle against Apis.
According to Morié, the Axumite king "Za Sebadho" resided at "Sado" and had only one daughter with his wife "Geres". The daughter's name was "Ismenie-Kallipyge" and the throne passed to his son-in-law "Za-Qaouasya".[195]
Greek mythical figure Tithonus, a prince of Troy who was the father of the Aethiopian king Memnon and mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Nekhti IV".
In Morié's narrative, he attempted to conquer Aethiopia but was taken prisoner by "Nekhti IV". The king's daughter wished to marry Tithonus and so he was freed and later became king. As king, he ruled parts of Upper Egypt during the reign of Amenmesse according to Morié (although Amenmesse actually reigned over half a century after the dates on this list).
A king named "Satyo" appeared on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[132]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor and illegitimate son of "Tetouni". In Morié's narrative, this king was deceitful and cruel and was killed by Hercules.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Her-Mentou". Morié claimed he was the inventor of the Meroitic script.
Historian Martin Bernal, in his book Black Athena, argued that it was possible for the name "Memnon" to have originated from the Egyptian name "Amenemhat".[202]
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Amenemhat II" and a son of Tithonus/Titon.
In Morié's narrative, there was a civil war after the death of Amen Emhat II and Konsab succeeded to the throne. He would defeat Fereydun of Iran when he tried conquering Konsab's territories. However, Konsab I was defeated in battle by Konsab II and subsequently died or disappeared.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Khons-Ab I".
In Morié's narrative, he was a brother of "Azi-Dahak X" (or "Akhemenes III") and son of "Bakkhemon", who was a son of Perseus. He desired to reclaim the throne of Aethiopia that had once belonged to descendants of Perseus and succeeded in doing so after several years of war.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Snouka IV Menken". In Morié's narrative, it was during this king's reign that an Egyptian princess who was engaged to Ramesses VII was kidnapped with her servant to be taken to the Aethiopian king. The High Priest of Isis, named "Ousir-as-ro", along with three priestesses was able to bring back the princess.
Egyptian High Priest of AmunAmenhotep who had de facto rule over Thebes before Herihor's reign.[208] According to Ethiopian historian Tekle Sadik Mekuria, this king was the father of Herihor.[208] However, there is no archaeological evidence to prove this.
Morié's narrative in Historie de l'Éthiopie did not identify Amen Astate with the High Priest of Amun Amenhotep and instead claimed there was a gap of 130 years between this king and "Her-Hor".[209]
Some Egyptologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries believed that Herihor and his successors had been ancestors of the Napatan rulers of Nubia.[74] This theory influenced Morié's narrative in Histoire de L'Éthiopie, in which he described them as an "Ammonian Dynasty" who ruled at Napata.[210]
In Morié's narrative, this king ruled both Egypt and Aethiopia for 10 years before being driven out of Egypt. He is also credited by Morié with being the first ruler of Napata and introducing embalming to Aethiopia, where previously cremation was used.
A combination of two kings from different sources. The historical High Priest of Amun Psusennes III (Pasebakhaennuit) mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of "Pinotsem III" and a king named "Za Sebadh" who is named on Abyssinian regnal lists as the predecessor of "Za Kawnasya".[217][78]
In Morié's narrative, this king was a relative of Solomon, resulting in him being placed closed to the reign of Makeda on this list.[217]
Known as "Zakawsya", "Kawnasya" or "Qawasya" on earlier regnal lists.[144][78][145]
Earlier regnal lists state this king ruled for only one year.[145][144]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam this king's wife was named Esmeni and she was the mother of Makeda.[218]
According Morié, this king had a son named "Nour-al-Rouz" who was burned alive after a nurse accidentally dropped him into a fire. His minister "Mouezin" usurped the throne while he was on an expediation, but he was defeated. In Morié's narrative, this king's wife was called "Ismenie-Kallipyge" and the king died at the age of 75.[219]
The Biblical Queen of Sheba in Ethiopian tradition. She is believed by Ethiopians to have visited king Solomon of Israel and had a son with him named Menelik.
Earlier regnal lists credit 50 years of rule to this queen.[222]
The Kebra Nagast refers to this queen as the "Queen of the South [who] was the Queen of Ethiopia". In this text she is described as "very beautiful in face", having a "superb" stature and possessing intelligence and understanding of "high character". Because of this she travelled to Jerusalem to "hear the wisdom of Solomon". The Kebra Nagast also states that she was very rich and traded "by sea and by land" to regions such as India and Aswan in Egypt.[223]
According to the Kebra Nagast, she also supposedly forbade women from ruling Ethiopia in the future,[224] though this is contradicted by thirteen reigning queens who appear later in this list.
According to the Book of Axum, Makeda rebuilt Axum in the territory of Aseba and this was the reason why the Bible refers to her as the "Queen of Saba" and "Queen of Azeb" (i.e. South).[225]
E. A. Wallis Budge theorised that the name "Makeda" may be based on "Maatkare", the throne name of pharaoh Hatshepsut.[104] Alternatively, the name may be based on "mlkt", a Sabaean term for "queen" that appears on some Sabaean inscriptions.[226]
Dynasty of Menelik I
The next section of this list begins with Menelik I, son of Queen Makeda and King Solomon. The Ethiopian monarchy claimed a line of descent from Menelik that remained unbroken – except for the reign of the Zagwe dynasty — until the monarchy's dissolution in 1975.
Tafari's version of the regnal list divides up the Menelik dynasty into four sections:[227]
Monarchs who reigned before the birth of Christ (982 BC–9 AD)
Monarchs who reigned after the birth of Christ (9–306)
Ethiopian tradition credits Makeda with being the first Ethiopian monarch to convert to Judaism after her visit to king Solomon, before which she had been worshipping Sabaean gods. However, Judaism did not become the official religion of Ethiopia until Makeda's son Menelik brought the Ark of the Covenant to Ethiopia. While Ethiopian tradition asserts that the kings following Menelik maintained the Jewish religion, there is no evidence that this was the case and virtually nothing is known of Menelik's successors and their religious beliefs.[229]
Earlier Ethiopian regnal lists, based on either oral or textual tradition, present an alternate order and numbering of the kings of this dynasty. If any other Ethiopian regnal list is taken individually, then the number of monarchs from Menelik I to Bazen is not enough to realistically cover the claimed time period from the 10th century BC to the birth of Jesus Christ. The 1922 list tries to bring together various different regnal lists into one larger list by naming the majority of kings that are scattered across various oral and textual records regarding the line of succession from Menelik. The result is a more realistic number of monarchs reigning over the course of ten centuries. Of the 67 monarchs on Tafari's list from Menelik I to Bazen, at least 40 are attested on pre-20th century Ethiopian regnal lists.
Manfred Kropp noted this section of the regnal lists shows an increasing interweaving of traditional Ethiopian regnal lists with names from Egyptology and Nubiology.[230] These Nubian and Egyptian rulers did not follow the Jewish religion, so their status as alleged successors of Menelik calls into question how strong the 'Judaisation' of Ethiopia truly was in Menelik's reign. These kings do not have Egyptian and Nubian elements in their names on regnal lists from before the 20th century and these elements were only added in 1922 to provide a stronger link to ancient Kush. Louis J. Morié's book Histoire de l'Éthiopie clearly influenced the names and regnal order of this section of the regnal list, as it had also influenced previous dynasties.[231] The author of the 1922 regnal list combined Morié's line of kings with pre-existing Axumite regnal lists to form a longer line of monarchs from Menelik I's reign in the 10th century BC to Bazen's reign which coincided with the birth of Christ. In many cases, kings from Morié's book are combined with different kings from the Axumite regnal lists.
Peter Truhart, in his book Regents of Nations, stated that an "Era of Nubian Supremacy" began with the reign of Amen Hotep Zagdur, as from this point onwards many kings' names show clear links to the kings of Napata and Kush.[78] Truhart also stated that the kings from Safelya Sabakon to Apras were likely related to or possibly identifiable with the Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth and Twenty-sixth dynasties (c. 730–525 BC).[78] He additionally noted that an "Era of Meroen Influence" began with the reign of Kashta Walda Ahuhu.[78]
The following table uses names that are a combination of those used in Tafari's, Taye Gabra Mariam's and Heruy Wolde Selassie's lists. Many monarchs have two names, usually one taken from an older regnal list and another taken from Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie. The monarch numbered 111th is the only one to have three names – "Sawe" and "Warada Nagash" from Ethiopian regnal lists and "Terhak" from Morié's book.
Son of Solomon and Makeda in Ethiopian/Abyssinian tradition, and named on all regnal lists as an ancestor of the Axumite kings. Some lists call this king Ibn Hakim or Ebna El-Hakim, meaning "son of the wise man".[232][233]
The Kebra Nagast states he ruled in the 10th century BC, which matches the dates listed here.
He was known as "Ebna Lahakim" in the Kebra Nagast with "David" being his regnal name. The name "Menelik" originated outside the Kebra Nagast in local Ethiopian traditions from later times.[234]
Some Ethiopian traditions state he founded Aksum,[235] while some chronicles claim this was done by Solomon.[236]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, a group of Israelites came to Ethiopia with Menelik I and later became the ancestors of the Beta Israel tribe.[237]
Some previous regnal lists state Menelik's reign lasted for either 24, 25 or 29 years.[238][233][232]
A combination of two kings from different sources. Tomai was the successor of Menelik I on some regnal lists instead of Handeyon.[233]Zerah the Cushite is a Biblical figure who attempted to conquer the Kingdom of Judah but failed. He is mentioned in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie as the successor of king "Ro-ke-Amen" (Menelik).[240]
"Sera" is also the name of a historical province which roughly corresponds to today's Warada Weqro in eastern Tigray.[243]
102
Amen Hotep
Zagdur II
–
31 years
930–899 BC
4570–4601
E • M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Amenhotep was a son of and the successor of "Zerakh" in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie.[244]Zagdur was the successor of Tomai on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[233][245]
In Morié's narrative, Amenhotep was the son of Sera I with a daughter of Shoshenq I. He was able to retain his father's conquests in Libya but lost control of Thebes.
Both Heruy Wolde Selassie's list and Alaqa Taye's list state this king ruled for 41 years, from 930 to 889 BC, resulting in all of the following monarchs of this dynasty until Safelya Sabakon (no. 122) having their reign dates pushed forward by 10 years compared to Tafari's list.[220][5]
103
Aksumay I
Ramisu
–
20 years
899–879 BC
4601–4621
E • M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Aksumay was the successor of Zagdur on some earlier Ethiopian regnal lists.[233][245]Ramissu was the son and successor of "Amenhotep" in Morié's Histoire de L'Éthiopie.[244]
In Morié's narrative, this king built a temple to Ptah in Aethiopia's capital
A combination of two kings from different sources. Awseyo was the successor of Aksumay on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[233][245]Sera II was the successor of "Ramessou" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[247]
According to Morié this king launched a second invasion of Judah and carried off the family of Jehoram, as related in the Bible.[247]
Earlier regnal lists state this king reigned for 3 years.[233][245]
105
Tawasya II
–
–
21 years
841–820 BC
4659–4680
R
A king named "Za Sawe" or "Sawe" was the successor of Awseyo on some earlier regnal lists.[183][232] A king named "Tahawasya" appears on different regnal lists, but in a different chronological position.[183][232]
Earlier regnal lists state "Za Sawe" reigned for 31 or 34 years.[183][238]
A combination of two kings from different sources. Abralyus was the successor of Tahawasya on some earlier Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][245]Piyankihi is a name for the historical Kushite Pharaoh of Nubia and Egypt Piye, who was the founder of the Twenty-fifth dynasty and was mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[248]
107
Aksumay II
Warada Sahay
–
23 years
788–765 BC
4712–4735
R
Warada Dahay was the successor of Abralyus on some earlier regnal lists.
Morié claimed this king reinstated the ancient cults after Aethiopia had been following Judaism since the reign of Menelik I.[249]
A combination of two kings from different sources. Kashta was a Kushite king who reigned before Piye, but in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie was named as the successor of Piye.[250] A king named Handadyu appears on earlier regnal lists as the second successor to Warada Dahay.[251][245]
Historical Kushite Pharaoh of Nubia and Egypt who was named in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie as the successor of Kashta, though he actually succeeded his father Shebitku.
Some historians have theorized that there may be some affinity between the word "Saba" and the name of the so-called Aethiopian king Sabaka.[252]
The first of 6 queens on this list named Kandake, the Meroitic term for the sister of the king of Kush who sometimes ruled over Kush as regent or as a monarch in her own right.
The inclusion of this queen on this regnal list may be inspired by Louis J. Morié's claim that Amenirdis I was a "Kantakeh" queen who ruled as regent during the reigns of three Aethiopian kings.[253] This was based on a theory in 19th century Egyptology that she had ruled as regent of Egypt during the rule of three kings of the Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt.[254]
A combination of three kings from different sources. "Terhak" is a name for the historical Kushite Pharaoh Taharqa who was mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie as the successor of Shabaka.[256] A king named "Tahawasya" was the successor of Handadyu on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][245]Warada Nagash was the successor of Handadyu on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][245]
A combination of two kings from different sources. Ourd-Amen was the successor and son-in-law of "Tahraka" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[258]Awesya was the successor of Warada Nagash on some earlier regnal lists.[183][245]
In Morié's narrative, this king was a son of Takahatenamun, who was apparently a widow when she married Taharqa. "Ourd-Amen" was chosen as successor and married a daughter of Taharqa. Egyptological works in the 19th century believed that a king named "Urdamen" had succeeded his father-in-law Taharqa but was defeated by the Assyrians.[259][260][261] However it later became known that "Urdamen" was simply the name Assyrians gave to Tantamani.[262]
A combination of two kings from different sourcces. Toma Seyon was usually the successor of Elalyion on some older Ethiopian regnal lists, but is named as the successor of "Masyo" on at least one recorded list.[264][245]Piankhi III was the successor of "Nouat-Meimaoun" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[265]
In Morié's narrative, this king was the widower of Amenirdis I and after his death his cartouches were hammered out and erased.[265]
Successor of "Piankhi III" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[265]
In Morié's narrative, this king was a son or brother of Nuatmeawn/Tantamani. During his reign, 240,000 Meshwesh warriors rebelled against Psamtik I and emigrated en masse to Aethiopia. They worked for Amen Asro II who gave them permission to conquer more territory on his behalf. Morié claimed they founded their own kingdom where the Shilluk Kingdom was later located.
Also according to Morié's narrative, this king had a queen named "Hatasou" and two daughters, including one named "Ait". The Egyptians killed the queen and kidnapped "Ait", who was given to Psamtik I's daughter "Amen-merit" as a slave. Amen Asro then waged war on Egypt but was taken prisoner by an Egyptian general named "Ramessou", who was betrothed to Psamtik's daughter. The general however fell in love with Amen Asro's daughter and attempted to leave Egypt with both of them, but only Amen Asro was able to escape. The general and "Ait" were both sentenced to death and Amen Asro died when defending his life from a group of Egyptians who had been sent to capture him.
A combination of two kings from different sources. Piankhi IV was the successor of "Amen-as-ro II" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[269]Awtet was named on some earlier Ethiopian regnal lists, usually as the successor of Basyo.[183][245]
Morié's narrative, he was the son of Piyankihi III and Amenirdis I and married to "Kenensat", daughter of an Egyptian prince who was descended from the Twenty-second dynasty and princess "Moutiritis", who was his sister.[269]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, in the year 627 B.C./4873 A.M. the tribe of Asmakih disputed with Pharaoh Psamtik I and an army of 240,000 deserted him and came to Ethiopia, joining the Ethiopian king.[270] The king was in Nawatan (Napata) at the time and gladly took them in, allowing them to reconquer territory that had been lost to enemies.[268] This tribe later settled where the Blue Nile and White Nile meet and built a city called Ezar where they lived for 300 years, the territory was later the location of the Shilluk Kingdom.[268] This narrative was directly lifted from Louis J. Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie, in which he included a very similar narrative, but instead claimed this took place in the reign of Amenasro II.[271]
A combination of two kings from different sources. Zaware Nebrat was the successor of Awtet on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][245] "Aspurta" is the historical Kushite king Aspelta who was mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie as the successor of "Piankhi IV".[269]
"Zaware Nebrat" means "seed of the High Priest".[266]
In Morié's narrative, this king was chosen by the Oracle of Amun in Napata and his wife was named "Matsenen", and she was a priestess of Mut and daughter of "Nensaou". They had a aughter named "Kheb-ha".
A combination of two kings from different sources. Safay was the successor of Zaware Nebrat on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][245] "Harsiotef" is the historical Kushite king Harsiotef who was mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie as the successor of "Aspourta".[272]
According to Morié, this king fought against various tribes and was defeated by the "Meroities", who Morié considered to be a distinct people from the Napatan people.
A combination of two kings from different sources. Ramhay was the successor of Safay on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][245] "Nastossanan" was the historical Kushite king Nastasen who was mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie as the successor of "Hor-se-atew I".[273]
An unpublished chronicle from Aksum states that a king named "Ramahay" reigned at the time of Alexander the Great and asked for Greek technicians and engineers to build palaces, monuments and stelae, one of which was destroyed centuries later by Gudit.[274] Alexander's rule of Egypt did not take place until 332 BC, over two centuries after these dates, and thus either the dating is wrong or this legend refers to the second king named Ramhay on this list (no. 145). Perhaps coincidentally, the Nubian king Nastasen did in fact reign during the time of Alexander the Great. It is unknown if this is the reason why the author of this regnal list associated Nastasen with Ramahay despite the Nubian king's absence on earlier Ethiopian regnal lists.
In Morié's narrative, this king was descended from Cepheus, Perseus and Memnon, and was married to "Ashen", a daughter of Psamtik III who fled Egypt following the Achaemenid conquest. According to Morié, the Greeks described "Nastosenen" as athletic and tall.
Morié's narrative also drew inspiration from an account written by Herodotus about a Macrobian king was suspicious of Ichthyophagoi sent by Cambyses II and stated that Cambyses was an unjust man, resulting in Cambyses becoming and angry and sending in an army only to be defeated and many soldiers resorting to cannibalism.[275] According to Morié, the Macrobian king was "Nastosenen", who was sent ambassadors from Cambyses but was suspicious of them and gave them a bow to take back to Cambyses, saying that if the Persians could draw a bow with the same skill as the Aethiopians, then they can attack.
121
Handu I
Wuha Abra
–
11 years
542–531 BC
4958–4969
E • G • M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Hande was the successor of Ramhay on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183]Houd-es-ew was the successor of "Nastosenen" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[276]
According to Morié, he was the brother of Nastossanan and the Greek language was widely spoken at the court of Meroe during his reign. Morié also believed that Aryandes, Satrap of Egypt, went to war with Aethiopia during his reign.
The name "Wuha Abra" is based on the ancient Egyptian name "Wahibre", used by kings such as Wahibre Ibiau.[104]
122
Safelya I
Sabakon
–
31 years
531–500 BC
4969–5000
E • M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Safelya was the successor of Hande on some earlier regnal lists.[183] "Sabakon" was an alternate name for Kushite Pharaoh Shabaka, as used by Diodorus in his work Bibliothecia Historia.[80]
A combination of two kings from different sources. Aglebul was the successor of Safelya on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][245] "Sepekos"/"Sebikhos" is an alternate name for the Kushite Pharaoh Shebitku used in Manetho's Aegyptica.[278]
Both Taye Gabra Mariam's list and Heruy Wolde Selassie's list stated this king reigned for 21 years, from 490 to 469 BC.[5][220] This, combined with the addition of 10 years to Amen Hotep Zagdur's reign earlier, results in all monarchs of this dynasty up to Feliya Hernekhit on Selassie's list and Nicotnis Kandake V on Taye's list having their reign dates pushed forward by 11 years compared to Tafari's list.
124
Pesmarit
Warada Nagash II
–
21 years
478–457 BC
5022–5043
E? • R
Warada Nagash appears on earlier regnal lists, usually as the successor of Handadyu.[183][245]
The name "Pesmarit" is possibly based on one of the name "Psamtik" used by some pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth dynasty.[104]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, the Amharic language was spoken at least as far back as the year 478 BC/5022 AM.[279]
125
Awseya II
Tarakos
–
12 years
457–445 BC
5043–5055
E • R
Awesya was the successor of Warada Nagash on some earlier regnal lists.[183][245]
"Tarakos" is an alternate name for Taharqa, as used by Eusebius in his quoting of Manetho's list of Pharaohs.[280]
126
Qaniz
Pismes
–
13 years
445–432 BC
5055–5068
R
Kanaz appears on some earlier regnal lists, though usually as the successor of Kawida.[183][232]
Earlier regnal lists state this king's reign lasted 10 years.[183][232]
Son of Awseya Tarakos according to Tafari's list.[281]
Walda Mehrat is named on at least one earlier regnal list as the successor of Tahawasya.[242]
"Walda Ekhuhu" is an Ethiopian form of "son of his brother", similar to the titles used by the Ptolemies.[230]
129
Elalion
Ta'aniki
–
10 years
402–392 BC
5098–5108
M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Elaliyon was the successor of Awseya on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][245]Taaaken was mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[282]
In Morié's narrative, "Taaaken" was Theagenes from Aethiopica, who was married to Chariclea. The name "Taaaken" may be taken from the real-life Kushite king Talakhamani.
Elalyon restored Judaism as the official religion of Aethiopia according to Morié.[246]
130
Atserk Amen I
–
–
10 years
392–382 BC
5108–5118
E • M
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie as a king who ruled in the 4th century BC and during whose reign the north-east part of Aethiopia fell under the rule of the Pharaoh Ptolemy II.
This king was mistakenly numbered "Atserk Amen III" on all versions of the list with the other three kings of this name numbered fourth to sixth. The confusion over the numbering of the kings named "Atserk Amen" stems from the numbering used by Morié, who numbered this king as the third to use this name.[283] However the first two kings named "Atserk Amen" in his narrative were renamed to "Sera I (Tomai)" (no. 101) and "Awseyo Sera II" (no. 104) on the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list.
Truhart also believed that the four kings named "Atserk Amen" were based on the name of a Merotic king,[284] though does not specify who.
Mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie as a king who ruled in the 3rd century BC and was the successor of "Erk-Amen I". In Morié's original narrative, this king prevented Ptolemy IV from expanding his territory into Aethiopia beyond Qasr Ibrim and built the temples of Dakka and Debod. In reality the former temple was built in collaboration between Ptolemy IV and Arqamani, while the Temple of Debod was built by Adikhalamani, though later expanded by the Ptolemaic pharaohs of Egypt.
Successor of Kanaz on earlier Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][232]
Earlier lists claim this monarch ruled for 9 years.[183][232]
133
Atserk Amen III
–
–
10 years
362–352 BC
5138–5148
E
134
Atserk Amen IV
–
–
10 years
352–342 BC
5148–5158
E
135
Nikawla (Queen)
Kandake III
–
10 years
342–332 BC
5158–5168
E • M
Kantakeh II was a queen who ruled in the 4th century BC during the time of Alexander the Great in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie, which also identified her as the queen from the Alexander Romance.[287]
Nicaula was a name that was sometimes used to refer to the Queen of Sheba.[288] Morié listed this as one of the alternate names for the Queen of Sheba.[255]
Portuguese missionary Jerónimo Lobo noted that contemporary Abyssinians/Ethiopians in the 17th century sometimes used the name "Nicaula" for the Queen of Sheba, alongside the names "Makeda" and "Nagista Azeb".[291]
136
Bassyo
–
–
7 years
332–325 BC
5168–5175
R
Successor of Toma Seyon on earlier regnal lists.[245]
Kantakeh III was a queen who ruled in the 1st century BC as the first of the "Blemmyes dynasty" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[292]Nicausis was listed by Morié as one of the alternate names for the Queen of Sheba.[255]
Morié's narrative dated this queen to the time of Gaius Petronius, and stated he attempted to conquer the Kingdom of Kush but was defeated by the queen, afterwards entering into negotiations with her. According to Morié, the queen's favourite residence was the Gash-Barka region in modern-day Eritrea. The 1922 regnal list instead placed the fifth queen named "Kandake" in the time period contemporary with Petronius.
Erk-Amen I was mentioned in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie as a king who ruled in the 3rd century BC and succeeded "Atserk-Amen III".[293]
Morié's original narrative identified this king with Ergamenes, a Kushite king mentioned in the writings of Diodorus Siculus who resented the power of the priests and wished to have absolute power like Ptolemy II so abolished the priesthood. Ergamenes was also said to be interested in Greek philosophy. In Morié's narrative, the king "Erk-Amen I" marched with his army to Arada where the Temple of Gold was located and slaughtered the priests, afterwards instituting a hereditary monarchy instead of elective.[294]
Modern-day archaeologists consider Arqamani to be the most likely king of Kush that the story of Ergamenes is based on.
Nicausis was listed by Morié as one of the alternate names for the Queen of Sheba.[255]Kantakeh IV was a queen who ruled in the 1st century BC and succeeded "Kantakeh III" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[296]
A combination of two kings from different sources. Ramhay was the successor of Safay on some earlier regnal lists.[183][245]Erk-Amen II was the son and successor of "Kantakeh IV" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[296]
Ergamenes, a Kushite king reported by Greek historian Agatharchides to have reigned during the time of Pharaoh Ptolemy IV of Egypt.
An unpublished chronicle from Axum states that a king named "Ramahay" reigned at the time of Alexander the Great and asked for Greek technicians and engineers to build palaces, monuments and stelae, one of which was destroyed centuries later by Gudit.[274] Alexander's rule of Egypt took place during 332–323 BC, and thus this king's reign on this regnal list is a century too late to be a contemporary of Alexander. However, this story of king Ramahay bears notable similarities with the story of Ergamenes, who was said to have been instructed in Greek philosophy, interested in Greek art and the general Greek way of life.[297] It is therefore possible that naming this king "Ramhay Arkamen" is intended to reflect that "Ramahay" is to be identified with "Ergamenes".
146
Feliya II
Hurnekhet
–
15 years
222–207 BC
5278–5293
M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Filiya was the successor of Satiyo on some earlier regnal lists.[183][232]Hor-nekht-atew was a king who succeeded Erk-Amen III in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[298]
Earlier Ethiopian regnal lists state this king reigned for 26 years.[183][232]
Morié's narrative placed this king much later, at the time of the death of Roman emperor Commodus, after which he tried to conquer Upper Egypt and was recognised by Pescennius Niger, whom he helped to usurp the Roman throne, but both were defeated by Septimus Severus. The 1922 regnal list placed this king's reign much earlier than Morié.
According to Morié, "Hor-nekht-atew" was married to "Tsetisi", a daughter of an Aethiopian official, who gave birth to several sons. Their eldest son was named "Pasan". "Hor-nekht-atew" had a second wife named "Moutoeri", with whom he had a son named "Ouikera". "Hor-nekht-atew" disinherited his eldest son "Pasan" in favour of passing the thron to "Ouikera", leading to infighting that affected the last years of his reign.
147
Handu II
Awkerara
–
20 years
207–187 BC
5293–5313
M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Handu was the successor of Ramhay or Bawawel on earlier Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][232]Ouikera was the successor of "Hor-nekht-atew" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[299]
In Morié's narrative, this king was the son of "Hor-nekht-atew" and succeeded him to the throne instead of his elder brother "Pasan". As a result, the first 15 to 20 years of his reign were filled in infighting with his brother.
Heruy Wolde Selassie's regnal list states this king reigned for 22 years.[300] This, along with the addition of 10 years to the reign of Amen Hotep Zagdur (no. 102) and the removal of 1 year from the reign of Agalbus Sepekos (no. 123) results in all monarchs up to Queen Nicotnis Kandake V (no. 162) having their reign dates pushed forward by 11 years compared to Tafari's list.
148
Aghabu
Beseheran
–
10 years
187–177 BC
5313–5323
M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Aglebu/Aglebul was the successor of Feliya or Safelya on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][232]Psheraan was the successor of "Ouikera" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[301]
In Morié's narrative, this king was the son and successor of "Hor-nekht-atew". Morié dated this king's rule to the 3rd century AD, during which time the king ruled over Philae and the Elephantine. He took advantage of the decline of the Roman Empire and the death of Gallienus and was declared king at Thebes. He supported the usurper Firmus and also Zenobia but was defeated by Aurelian. After the latter's death, he again invaded Egypt and ruled Thebes for 4 years before being driven out by Probus.
Some earlier Ethiopian regnal lists state this king reigned for 3 years.[232]
149
Sulay
Kawawmenun
–
20 years
177–157 BC
5323–5343
M • R
A combination of two kings from different sources. Khouwoumenou was successor of "Psheraan" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[301]Kawida was the successor of Bahas on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[183][232]
According to Morié, this king had several children.
Earlier regnal lists state this king ruled for 2 years.[183][232]
150
Masalne II
Qurarmer
–
8 years
157–149 BC
5343–5351
M
Tereremen was the next known king after "Psheraan" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[302]Mesalamieh/Messalanieh was a city in Sudan named in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[303]
151
Nagsey
Besinte
–
10 years
149–139 BC
5351–5361
R
Psentes was the next known king after "Tereremen" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.
A combination of two kings from different sources. Safelya appears on some earlier Ethiopian regnal lists, though usually as the successor of Gotoba, Hande or Ramhay.[264][183][245]Ab-ra-amen was a king who reigned at some point after Berou-Kanower in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[298]
According to Morié, this king had a wife named "Nekarou"
Appears on at least one earlier regnal list under the name "Laka" as the successor of Nalke.[232]
One version of Heruy Wolde Selassie's regnal list and Taye Gabra Mariam's regnal list both state that this king reigned for 2 years, from 10 to 8 BC[300][5] In the case of Selassie's list, this was done due to the Christianisation of Ethiopia being moved forward ten years from 317 to 327.[307]
Ethiopian historian Fisseha Yaze Kassa stated that this king reigned for 8 years.[306]
Appears on earlier regnal lists as a king who reigned 8 years before the birth of Christ.
Successor of Laka/Luzay on at least one list.[232]
Other lists place Bazen after Mahasse or Nalke.[183][73]
Some earlier regnal lists claim this king ruled for 16 years.[73]
Ethiopian historian Fisseha Yaze Kassa stated that this king reigned for 6 years.[306]
A tomb is known to exist for this king and some local Ethiopian traditions claim he was Bathlazar.[308]
Egyptologist Henry Salt claimed that he saw an ancient inscription on a stone in a church in Axum stating "This is the sepulchral stone of Bazen".[309] He did however claim that this was the name of several Abyssinian kings, so he may not have been referring to this specific king.[309]
Text accompanying this section on Tafari's list: "These thirty-five sovereigns at the time of Akapta Tsenfa Arad had been Christianized by the Apostle Saint Matthew. There were few men who did not believe, for they had heard the words of the gospel. After this Jen Daraba, favourite of the Queen of Ethiopia, Garsemat Kandake, crowned by Gabre Hawariat Kandake, had made a pilgrimage to Jerusalem according to the law of Orit (the ancient law),[aa] and on his return Philip the Apostle [sic] taught him the gospel, and after he had made him believe the truth he sent him back, baptising him in the name of the trinity. The latter (the Queen's favourite), on his return to his country, taught by word of mouth the coming of our Saviour Jesus Christ and baptised them. Those who were baptised, not having found an Apostle to teach them the Gospel, had been living offering sacrifices to God according to the ancient prescription and the Jewish Law."[311]
Despite the text above claiming that Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia during this line of monarchs, Charles Rey pointed out this retelling of events contradicts both the known information around the Christianisation of Ethiopia and the story of Queen Ahwya Sofya and Abreha and Atsbeha in the next section.[90]
The claim that Matthew the Apostle had Christianized king Akaptah Tsenfa Arad (no. 167) is inspired by Louis J. Morié's narrative in Historie de l'Éthiopie, in which he stated that a king named "Hakaptah" ruled Aethiopia in c. 40 AD and it was during his reign that Matthew converted the king's daughter Ephigenia.[312] This narrative was inspired by the older Church story of Matthew which involved a king named "Egippus".[313]
The story of Garsemot Kandake and Jen Daraba is based on the Biblical story of the Ethiopian eunuch, who was the treasurer of Kandake, queen of the Ethiopians and was baptized after travelling to Jerusalem. However, the eunuch was actually baptised by Philip the Evangelist, not Philip the Apostle as Tafari mistakenly states. Louis J. Morié's narrative did not accept that this Kandake queen was the one who is mentioned in the story of the Ethiopian eunuch.[314] The apparent contradiction in story of the Christianisation of Ethiopia according to Tafari's regnal list is due to an attempt to accommodate both the native Abyssinian tradition around Abreha and Atsbeha and the Biblical traditions of "Ethiopia" (i.e. Nubia).
Taye Gabra Mariam's version of this list does not refer to the traditions of the Baptism by Matthew the Apostle and the Biblical Kandake, choosing not to include the name "Akaptah" for the 167th monarch and not including the name "Kandake" for the 169th monarch.[92]
This section is the last part of the regnal list that directly refers to ancient Nubia and the Kingdom of Kush, which came to an end in the 4th century AD following its conquest by Ezana.
Peter Truhart believed the line of Axumite kings began with Gaza Agdur (no. 188) and dated the beginning of his reign to c. 150.[315]
An Aethiopian king named "Egippus" who, in Church tradition, was the father of saint Ephigenia of Ethiopia, who was consecrated by Matthew.[313] This king appeared in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie under the name Hakaptah and was dated to the 1st century AD.[296]
Senfa Arad succeeded Bazen on some earlier Ethiopian regnal lists.[322][323]
King Hirtacus who, in Church tradition, asked Matthew the Apostle to persuade Ephigenia to marry him, but instead Matthew rebuked the king for lusting after her and the king promptly had Matthew killed while he stood at the altar.[324] This king appeared in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie under the name Hor-em-tekhou and succeeded "Hakaptah".[325] In Morié's narrative this king turned back to the cult of Isis and later helped Roman envoys in their search to find the source of the Nile, but they were unable to do so.
A queen named "Kandake" succeeded "Hor-em-tekhou" in Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie.[326] Morié however did not consider her to be the Kandake of the Bible.
The historical Kandake whose period of rule may align with this monarch could be Amanitore who ruled in the 1st century AD.
According to some Ethiopian traditions, the first church of Ethiopia, the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion, was built during this queen's reign by eunuch after her converstion to Christianity.[327] However, it is more likely the church was built by Ezana in the 4th century after his conversion to Christianity.[328]
Taye Gabra Mariam's list likewise claimed this queen ruled for 8 years, but dated her reign to 42–50.[5] Taye's list also does not include the name "Kandake" for this ruler, suggesting he ignored the Biblical story of the Ethiopian eunuch.
Manfred Kropp theorised the name "Garsemot" was an altered form of the names Germa Sor or Germa Asfare that appear on some earlier regnal lists.[317]
Bahar Asgad succeeded Senfa Asgad or Senfa Arad on some earlier regnal lists.
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, a group of Jews fled to Ethiopia after the Siege of Jerusalem (70 AD) and became part of the Beta Israel.[237]
Could be the Aksumite king Hataz, though he is usually dated to the 6th or 7th centuries.
Hakali succeeded Malik on some earlier regnal lists.
Sharguay succeeded Kulu Seyon on some earlier regnal lists.[336]
Hakli could be the Aksumite king Zoskales, the earliest known king of Axum who ruled in c. 100. Egyptologist Henry Salt and Ethiopian scholar Sergew Hable Selassie both theorised that Zoskales was the king known as "Za Haqala" or "Za Hakale" that appears on some Ethiopian regnal lists.[337][338] However, G.W.B. Huntingford felt that there is not enough evidence to support this identification.[339]
Earlier regnal lists state Hakli reigned for 13 years.
According to Morié this king was a conqueror and scholar who was fluent in the Greek language and during his reign the Ancient Greek religion became the official cult of Abyssinia, but his legacy was tarnished by debauchery and greed.[335]
Agdur succeeded Ṣenfa Arad or Saifa Arad on earlier regnal lists.[336][330]
Known as "Graza Agdour" in a list attached at the end of the Acta of Abreha and Atsbeha found in the Axum Zion Church, which also states he reigned for 8 years, from 212 to 221.[343]
This king may be identifiable with the Aksumite king GDRT, who appears in some regnal lists under the name "Gedur", "Zegdur" or "Zegduru" ("Ze" meaning "of" in Ge'ez). A similarly named king "Amen Hotep Zagdur" appears earlier in Tafari's list as no. 102. However, archaeologists believe that king GDRT reigned at some point in the early third century AD, which more closely matches the date of the 188th king on this list.
Asgwagwa succeeded Besi Sark on some earlier regnal lists.
Earlier regnal lists state this king reigned for 76 or 77 years.
Known as "Agdour Asguagua" in a list attached at the end of the Acta of Abreha and Atsbeha found in the Axum Zion Church, which also states that he reigned for 8 years, from 221 to 229.[343]
Some chronicles claim that a king named "Azguagua" was the son of a king named "Alada" and was converted to Christianity by Frumentius and his brother Edesius.[235] The 1922 regnal list ignores this tradition and instead dates the conversion of Ethiopia to Christianity in the reign of Ahywa Sofya. The reign dates for Asgwegwe on this list are also too early to be in line with the lifetime of Frumentius.
Saifa Arad appeared on some earlier regnal lists, but usually as the successor of Moal Genha or Seyon Geza.
According to the Tarika Nagast (History of Kings), the father of Abreha and Atsbeha was king Sayfa-Ar'ed.[345]E. A. Wallis Budge referred to the king from the Tarika Nagast account as "Senfa Arad (II)".[346]
This identification however raises questions over the 1922 regnal list, as this king is followed by four further kings before the mother of Abreha and Atsbeha becomes ruler of Ethiopia.
One regnal list quoted by Carlo Conti Rossini claimed that "Seifa Arad" was the throne name of king Tazer,[323] numbered 199 on this list, who could plausibly be the father of Abreha and Atsbeha.
Named on some earlier regnal lists as the successor of Asfeha.
Earlier lists state this king ruled for 23 years.
Peter Truhart tentatively identified this king as the Axumite king Wazeba.[315] This identification allows for Tafari's list to match with archaeological evidence that shows that Wazeba was succeeded by Ousanas, who Truhart identified with the next king Tazer.
Truhart dated the beginning of this king's reign to c. 300 and stated his reign lasted for either 10 or 13 years.[315]
Peter Truhart identified this king with "Ela Ameda" or Ousanas.[315] This identification allows for Tafari's list to match with archaeological evidence that shows Ousanas was succeeded by his wife Sofya as regent before their son became king of Axum.
A king named Ameda reigned before Ahywa on some earlier regnal lists and was in power for at least 30 years.[131][321]
Ahywa was the immediate predecessor of Abreha and Atsbeha on some earlier regnal lists, which state she ruled for 3 years.[131][321] Tafari's regnal list notes that "her regnal name was Sofya, and she was the mother of Abreha [and] Atsbeha".[348]
According to an unpublished history of the kings of Axum, a queen named "Ahiyewa" was the mother of Abreha and Atsbeha and she ruled for three years during the minority of her sons.[349]
Wife of Tazer according to Gedle Abreha and Asbeha.[347]
An Aksumite queen named Sofya ruled Axum as regent following the death of her husband Ousanas (otherwise known as Ella Allada) in c. 330. Her son was king Ezana.
"Chronological table of the Christian sovereigns who received baptism and followed completely the law of the Gospel."[348]
Text accompanying this section in Taye Gabra Mariam's list:
"in the 11th year these two brothers ruled, [317 E.C.] Christianity came to Ethiopia through Abba Salama Kasate [Birhan]."[351]
Text accompanying this section in Tafari's list:
"In the year 327 [sic] after Jesus Christ – 11 years after the reign of these two sovereigns (mother and son) – the gospel was introduced to Ethiopia by Abba Salama, and the Queen Sofya, who was baptised, became a good Christian."[348]
Church of Abreha and Atsbeha
Brothers Abreha and Atsbeha are often cited in tradition as the first Christian kings of Ethiopia. According to Tyrannius Rufinus, Christianity was introduced to this region by Frumentius and his brother Edesius. They were sailing down the Red Sea with a Syrian merchant named Meropius when they landed on the coast and were seized by the native people, who spared the two brothers and took them to the king. Frumentius was made the king's chancellor and Edesius was made cupbearer or butler. After the king's death, the widowed queen asked both men to stay until her son was grown up and Frumentius assisted her in ruling the kingdom. During his time in power, Frumentius had many churches built and obtained facilities to allow more trade with Christians and years later asked Athanasius, the Pope of Alexandria, to send a bishop to Abyssinia to teach the Christians there who had no leader. E. A. Wallis Budge believed that the brothers had initially arrived at Adulis.[352]
Tafari's regnal list reflects the above tradition by specifically crediting Frumentius, under the name of Aba Salama, with introducing Christianity during the rule of queen Ahywa Sofya. According to Tyrannius Rufinus, the Axumites converted to Christianity during the reign of the Roman Emperor Constantine I (306–337).[353]
Heruy Wolde Selassie's book Wazema provided a somewhat different explanation for the Christinisation of Ethiopia. According to him Frumentius, known as Käsate Berhan ("Revealer of the Light (of Faith)"), went from Ethiopia to Alexandria in 309 E.C. and was appointed by Athanasius as Metropolitan of Ethiopia, where he returned in 330 and baptized the Ethiopians.[317] Selassie also stated that according to the Synaxarium, Frumentius was sent to Egypt by Queen Sofya with letters for the Patriarch, arriving there before the Council of Nicaea (317 E.C.) but only returning to Ethiopia in 330.[317]
Peter Truhart believed that a "period of disintegration" began with the reign of Adhana I during which there may have been multiple reigning monarchs at the same time.[354] Truhart dated this period to c. 375–450.[354]E. A. Wallis Budge previously stated that he believed there were "kinglets" who ruled parts of Ethiopia between 360 and 480 separate from other lines of kings. This theory was used to explain why there was so much variation between different Ethiopian regnal lists. Budge identified most of the monarchs from Adhana I to Lewi as "kinglets",[355] while the later kings were those who appear more frequently on regnal lists. John Stewart's book African States and Rulers provides alternate reign dates and succession order for the monarchs from Abreha I to Del Na'od.[356]
This section of the list is the first to avoid using Louis J. Morié's Historie de l'Éthiopie for regnal names, order and length and instead relies almost entirely on earlier Ethiopian regnal lists.
Traditionally the first Christian monarchs of Ethiopia in the early 4th century.[357] They appear on all Regnal lists of Ethiopia that cover the Christian period.
The names 'Abreha' and 'Atsbeha' may be corruptions of the names of Ezana and his brother Shiazana.[358][359] Egyptologist Henry Salt equated Abreha with Ezana and Atsbeha with Saizana.[136] However, E. A. Wallis Budge was sceptical of this and suggested the chroniclers deliberately avoided mentioning Ezana and Shizana and instead preferred to claim conversion took place through members of the so-called Solomonic line, which Ezana and Shizana may not have been part of.[360]
It is known that it was Ezana who was the first king to convert to Christianity, due to the teachings of Aba Salama. Despite this, Ezana is largely absent from many Ethiopian regnal lists.[361]
Stuart Munro-Hay theorized the story of Abreha and Atsbeha resulted from a confusion over two historical figures; The Aksumite king Kaleb, whose throne name was Ella Atsbeha, and Aksumite general Abraha, who promoted Christianity in Yemen.[362] The dates on this list roughly correspond with the estimated period of Ezana's reign by historians (c. 320s-360).
According to Tafari, it was during this joint reign that Aba Salama introduced the Gospel to Ethiopia in 327 and the Queen Ahwya Sofya was baptised.[348]Manfred Kropp [de] argued that this date was wrong and it should be 317.[363] Some Ethiopian traditions state that it was in the year 333 that the people converted to Christianity.[346]
On the version of this regnal list included in Heruy Wolde Selassie's Wazema, the date of Christianization is brought forward by ten years to 327.[307]
Some earlier regnal lists state these kings ruled for 27 years.[216]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) for Ezana from John Stewart: 325–356.[356]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) for Abreha and Atsbeha from John Stewart: 356–370.[356]
Successor of Abreha and Atsbeha on some earlier regnal lists.
One regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez stated this king co-ruled with Arfed and Amsi, who were all brothers and divided each day into three parts so each could rule during a different part of the day.[207]
The name Dalez appears on at least one regnal list as the successor of Abreha and Atsbeha.[366]
Successor of Asfeha and Dalez on some earlier regnal lists.[216][366]
One tradition states that this king was a co-ruler with Abreha and Atsbeha from 356 to 370, and that each day of their joint reign was divided into three parts, so that each king was absolute during a specific part of the day.[355]
Peter Truhart dated the beginning of this king's reign to c. 365 and theorized that he may be the same king as Saizana.[354]
205
Arfed
Gabra Maskal I
4 years
365–369
5865–5869
Arfed was the successor of Asfeh on some earlier regnal lists.
The name Gabra Maskal appears on at least one list following Sahel.[366]
One regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez stated this king co-ruled with Asfeh and Amsi, who were all brothers and divided each day into three parts so each could rule during a different part of the day.[207]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 370–374.[356]
According to one tradition, this king was murdered by his successor Elagabaz.[355][354] The king was known to be vain and proud and refused to allow his daughter Admas to be married to Elagabaz when he asked for her hand in marriage. The king died shortly after being imprisoned.[370]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 401–402.[356]
One Ethiopian tradition claims that Elagabaz killed his predecessor and married the king's daughter named Admas before proclaiming himself king.[355] He had previously ordered to be executed by Sahel II after asking for his daughter's hand in marriage, but rose up against him with an army.[371] Elagabaz later married a pagan queen named Lab, who was from a neighbouring district. This resulted in a brother of Admas, named Shahel (or Suhal), to rise up and kill both Elagabaz and Lab, and proclaim himself king.[355]
According to Morié, Ela Gobaz was the son of a district chief and his wife named Farach, who was the daughter of a provincial governor. Gobaz had married Lab because he conquered the country she was ruling and she was allowed to govern Ethiopia after marrying Gobaz. Gobaz's sister Ababa-Esat and their five cousins were sold as slaves to Yazdegerd I, ruler of the Sasanian Empire.[372]
According to one tradition, this king was the brother-in-law of Elagabaz, and slew him to become king. E. A. Wallis Budge dated the beginning of his reign to 394.[355][354]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 404–408.[356]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 463–474.[356]
Stewart lists the previous king as his co-ruler from 463 to 466.[356]
Possibly the Axumite king WʽZB who reigned during the mid 6th century, also known as "Ella Gabaz" on an inscription where he states that he is the son of "Ella Atsbeha" or king Kaleb, who is placed much further down Tafari's list.[374]
Ameda was the successor of Agabi and Lewi on some earlier regnal lists.
Yakob was usually a different king who co-ruled with Dawit as successors of Ameda.
Earlier lists state that Ameda ruled for 11 years.
Yakob and Dawit co-ruled for 3 years according to earlier lists.
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 475–486.[356]
John Stewart believes this king was Alla Amidas,[356] who other historians believe reigned in the mid 6th century. Alternatively, this king may be Ousanas, also known as Ella Allada or Ella Amida, who reigned in the 4th century.
Stewart lists joint kings Jacob and David (who do not appear on Tafari's list) as ruling between Alla Amidas and Armah from 486 to 489.[356]E. A. Wallis Budge also confirmed one Ethiopian tradition that states that Yakob (Jacob) and Dawit (David) ruled jointly for three years following Alla Amidas.[375]Alaqa Taye called this king "Ameda III (Yacob)", seemingly combining Yakob with Alla Amidas, and Dawit being combined with Armah.[5]
Appears on some earlier regnal lists, but usually as the successor of Arfed.[367][365] The kings from Sahel I to Armah I usually appear in separate line of succession from Abreha and Atsbeha, but have been inserted between Arfed and Amsi on this list to provide a longer and more realistic line of succession up to the reign of Kaleb.
One regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez stated this king co-ruled with Asfeh I and Arfed, who were all brothers and divided each day into three parts so each could rule during a different part of the day.[207] This regnal list however rejects the tradition by moving Amsi's reign much further down in chronological order.
Possibly either the Aksumite king Ousanas, also known as Ella Allada or Ella Amida, or Alla Amidas, who reigned in the mid 6th century and during whose reign the Nine Saints came to Ethiopia.
Despite sharing the same name as the Axumite king Ezana, he reigned much earlier than these dates and it is more likely this king is meant to be Tazena, father of Kaleb, the next king on this list. The king is also known by the name Zitana.[376][345]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 504–505.[356]
John Stewart lists another king after Zitana who does not appear on Tafari's list named Jacob II (505–514).[356] Budge also gives the same kings' names and dates, adding that one Ethiopian tradition claimed Jacob II (Yakob II) was called "Arwe" because of his cruelties and was defeated by 'Ella 'Asbeha, otherwise known as Kaleb.[369]
"Dynasty of Atse (Emperor) Kaleb until Gedajan."[373]
Tafari's version of this list marks a break with the reign of Kaleb, though earlier Ethiopian regnal lists did not do this. It is possible that Tafari's list marks a break here because it considers Kaleb to be the first 'Emperor' of Ethiopia. Louis J. Morié stated that Saint Elesbaan (another name for Kaleb) was the first to claim the title of "Emperor".[377] However, Henry Salt believed that Menelik I was the first to use this title.[377]
According to a text named Tarika Nagast, the kings from Kaleb to Dil Na'od were each the son of the previous king (omitting Israel, Gedajan and Gudit from its list of kings).[345] The text quotes the list of kings from a manuscript held in the church of Debre Damo.[345]
Various sources suggest that there was a struggle for the throne between Israel and his brother Gabra Maskal after the death or abdication of their father.[383]
One source claims that Israel usurped the throne but dropped dead when the priests announced that Kaleb had chosen Gabra Maskal as his successor.[386]
Another source claims that Israel became leader of the Zar cult after failing the usurp the throne after his father's abdication.[386]
However, a different source claims that it was his brother who usurped the throne and Israel returned to Ethiopia to try to regain it, resulting in a long-lasting conflict.[386]
An additional king named on Taye Gabra Mariam's version of this list.[5]
Could be Gebre Krestos, a son of Kaleb who is only recorded on one known regnal list and a Ge'ez inscription.[385] Alternatively, this could simply be a throne name of Gebre Meskel.[385]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 578–591.[356]
Wasan Sagad could be the king named Saifu in Chinese sources based on dating and a possible similarity in the names. Stuart Munro-Hay identified "Saifu" as a grandson of Kaleb.[392]
According to Alaqa Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, it was in the tenth year of this king's reign that a second group of the Weyto tribe, who had split from the earlier group 3,100 years before and settled in Egypt and Sudan, arrived in Ethiopia.[130]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart and Peter Truhart: 725–741.[356][395]
This king died due to suffocation by a crowd on the same day he was crowned, which is why it became illegal afterwards to approach the emperor.[396] A barrier was thereafter placed before the emperor to prevent this from happening again.[394]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart and Peter Truhart: 775.[356][395]
One manuscript from Gojjam claims that this king was the father of Gudit and had a wife named Makia Maryam who was Gudit's mother.[397] Like Tafari's list, this manuscript states that Aizar only reigned for half a day and reigned two decades before Wudme Asfare (who is claimed to be Gudit's grandfather in other sources).[397]
Some chronicles claim this king ruled or lived for 150 years.[397]
An unpublished chronicle from Axum states that this king was the grandfather of Gudit through his daughter.[397][395]
Ethiopian historian Sergew Hable Selassie estimated that Wudme Asfare's 30-year reign to have taken place from 792 to 822 AD[397] Selassie felt that the actual reign dates could differ by as much as 100 years compared to written sources.[397]
According to Morié, this king governed as a tyrant and was assassinated by a Muslim named Sindbad, who crushed his head with a large stone while he slept after getting drunk.[394]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart and Peter Truhart: 790–820.[356][395]
According to Morié, Ethiopia suffered from plague, famine and war during this king's reign. The king was also contemporary with Pope Jacob of Alexandria who ordained Abuna Yohannes as the head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church but he was forced to go back to Egypt.[398]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart and Peter Truhart: 820–825.[356][395]
Knud Tage Anderson estimated this king's reign lasted from c. 925 to c. 945. One tradition claims this king died of thirst while visiting an Arab country.[399]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart and Peter Truhart: 825–845.[356][395]
Successor of Degennajan on some earlier regnal lists.
Possibly an alternate name for Degnnajan,[400] though this list considers them to be separate kings and other regnal lists name Gedajan as a separate king.[401][367]
One tradition claims that Gedajan or Gidajan was the name of Anbase Wedem before he became king.[402]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 845–846.[356]
Taye Gabra Mariam's list did not make a break between Tazena and Kaleb and instead placed a break between Gedajan and Gudit.[404] According to legend, Gudit was a Jewish queen who usurped the throne for 40 years and destroyed churchs in Axum. According to some traditions and regnal lists, she brought an end to the old Aksumite line and reigned after Dil Na'od.[405][406] However some lists treat her reign as an interruption before the line was restored after her death.[407] This regnal list follows the latter tradition and continues with two further kings of the old line before the Zagwe dynasty comes to power.
Tafari's version of the list includes these three monarchs at the end of the previous section "Dynasty of Atse (Emperor) Kaleb until Gedajan".[91]
Moved the capital of Ethiopia to Lasta after sacking Axum.[408]
Some earlier regnal lists place this queen before Anbase Wedem,[409] while others place her reign after Del Naad.[408]
Some Ethiopian traditions state that Gudit was a granddaughter of Wudme Asfare.[395]
Also known as Yodït, which may have been her real name.[410] The name "Gudit" is likely a nickname, as it means "the freak, the monster, the unnatural or unusual or surprising or strange one".[410]
Also known as Esato, which means "Fire".[397] A regnal list quoted by Pedro Páez stated that Esato was a Jewish queen who reigned in Amhara while Gudit was a different queen who reigned in Tigray for 40 years and destroyed Churches in the region.[411] However, a different list quoted by August Dillmann instead claimed that Esato and Gudit were the same woman, and that the names were what they were known as in Amhara and Tigray respectively.[409]
Sometimes known as Terdai Gobaz.[26][395] However, a list quoted by August Dillmann named her separately from Gudit/Esato and lists her after Del Naad and directly before the Zagwe dynasty.[412] This suggests that Terdai Gobaz is the same person as Masoba Warq.
Knud Tage Anderson argued that Gudit was the same woman as Masoba Warq, a daughter of Del Naad who married Mara Takla Haymanot, the founder of the Zagwe dynasty.[413] However, he notes that a crucial difference is that Gudit is considered to be the predecessor of Anbase Wedem while Masoba Warq followed Dil Na'od, the last Axumite king.[402]
Scottish traveler James Bruce noted a version of the story of Gudit in which she was a cousin of Mara Takla Haymanot, who took over rule of Ethiopia following the reigns of Gudit's successors and founded the Zagwe dynasty.[414] Bruce also recorded one legend that stated that Gudit was a princess and a wife of a governor of the district of Bugna who wanted to overthrow the Christian religion and place her infant son on the throne. According to this version of the story Gudit had 400 royal princes killed and Del Naad (who was an infant) was taken to Shewa as the last survivor of his line.[415]
Pedro Páez and Manuel de Almeida mentioned a different version of the legend where Gudit was a woman who ruled the kingdom of Tigray for 40 years, destroying all the churches there and was followed by Anbase Wedem.[416] A different queen named Esato was said to have ruled in Amhara and was part of "a generation of traitors".[416] Esato however does not appear on the 1922 regnal list.
Yet another legend claims that Gudit was a poor girl who came to Axum and became a prostitute. A priest who slept with her stole a piece of golden curtain from the treasury of the Siyon church, made it into golden shoes and gave them to her. The priest was declared innocent of this theft because Gudit was blamed for tempting him, and she was then punished to have her right breast removed and be exiled. She met a Jewish Syrian prince named Zanobis, who pitied her and married her, and she converted to Judaism. Together the destroyed the city of Axum and were able to do so because the king, Degnajan, had perished of thirst while visiting an Arab country.[417]
Gudit's historicity is confirmed in the writings of traveller Ibn Hawqal, who mentions that Ethiopia (called "the country of the Habasha") had been ruled by a woman for many years by the time of his visit and that she assumed power after killing the previous king.[418] Ibn Hawqal's travels took place between 943 and 977, which would mean that Gudit's reign is dated later than what is suggested on this list. Ibn Hawqal stated the queen had ruled for around 30 years by the time of his travels, meaning her reign began by 947 at the latest.[419]
A chronicle called History of the Patriarchs of the Egyptian Church also confirms Gudit's historicity. The chronicle quotes a letter written in c. 980 to the patriarch of Alexandria which makes reference to a "Queen of the Bani al-Hamwiah" who imprisoned many Ethiopians and destroyed churches. The Ethiopian king had also been driven out. The queen's reign came to an end when the patriarch Philotheos sent a new Metropolitan bishop to Ethiopia.[420]
Knud Tage Anderson argued that the negative portrayal of Gudit was a creation of later times. He believed that Gudit/Yodit had been a member of the royal family and took power after the disappearance of king Degnajan's army and his death by thirst in Arabia. He also argued that she may have saved the country from political disaster, just as the biblical Judith had saved her people from disaster. He noted that Ibn Haqwal's description of Gudit/Yodit was positive and even in admiration of this queen.[399]
E. A. Wallis Budge dated Gudit's accession to roughly 300 years before the beginning of Yekuno Amlak's reign (c. 970).[56]
Taddesse Tamrat dated the beginning of Gudit's reign to c. 945.[419]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 846–885.[356]
Sometimes known as "Ga'wa", but this is likely a conflation with the much later Tigray queen Ga'ewa from the sixteenth century.[397]
257
Anbase Wedem
–
20 years
890–910
6390–6410
Appears on earlier regnal lists as the successor of either Degennajan,[365] Gedajan[367] or Gudit.[409]
One tradition states he succeeded his father Degnajan but roamed from mountain to mountain to escape Gudit.[402]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, this king took revenge against the Ethiopian Jews after they had helped Gudit burn churches in Aksum and overthrow the kingdom.[as] A group of Jews had entered Ethiopia from Egypt before Gudit's reign.[237]
Peter Truhart stated this king had been a "pretender" to the throne from 875 until his accession in 885.[395]
Alternate reign dates (Gregorian) from John Stewart: 885–905.[356]
This dynasty was of Agaw descent and assumed power after the end of the Aksumite line.[5][421] In Ethiopian tradition they are not considered to be descendants of Solomon and are therefore considered illegitmate, being omitted from some regnal lists altogether.[422] Ghelawdewos Araia disagreed with the idea that the Zagwe kings were usurpers and instead argued that they "continued the material and spiritual culture" of Axum.[5] Sergew Hable Selassie noted that lists of Zagwe kings often fall into three categories he called the "short", "long" and "longer" versions which contain 5, 9, 11 or 16 names.[423] The total time period of the Zagwe dynasty ranges from 143 to 354 years according to these different lists.[423] The 1922 list uses the "long" version with 11 names and totals 333 years for this dynasty.
One tradition claims that Na'akueto La'ab abdicated the throne in favour of Yekuno Amlak. If this was the case, then, according to a theory by Budge, the dynasty may have continued to claim the title of Negus until c. 1330, with their descendants governing Lasta for centuries after this.[426]
The following list includes seven consecutive kings ruling for 40 years each. This is also reported in other regnal lists, although there is no confirmed proof that these seven kings ruled for these exact number of years. The suspiciously round numbers given for their reign lengths suggest certain gaps in Ethiopia's history that were filled in by extending the reigns of the Zagwe kings. See Zagwe regnal lists for more information on the alternate lines of succession for this dynasty.
Reigned for 3, 15 or 40 years according to some earlier lists.[423]
Ethiopian traditions differ on the exact circumstances around the rise of the Zagwe dynasty. One tradition states that Mara married Masoba Warq, a daughter of Dil Na'od, and overthrew him to become king. According to this tradition, Mara Takla Haymanot was a high-ranking official before taking the throne.[427][413]
Another tradition states that Dil Na'od was instead overthrown by Gudit, and she was succeeded by several of her own family before her cousin Mara ascended to the throne.[428]
Knud Tage Anderson argued that Masoba Warq and Gudit were the same woman.[413]
According to Taye Gabra Mariam's History of the People of Ethiopia, the Oromo people arrived in Ethiopia in the tenth year of this king's reign.[429]
Reigned for 10 years according to some earlier lists.[423]
E. A. Wallis Budge dated the reigns of the first two kings of this dynasty to c. 992–1030 based on the reign lengths of 3 and 40 years that are given for these kings on some regnal lists.[432]
According to Morié, the Abuna Daniel refused to crown Tatadim upon his accession due to considering him a usurper.[433] This resulted in Tatadim asking Philotheos for a new Abuna, but this could not be done without the consent of the current Abuna.[433]Abuna Daniel was later thrown in prison by the vizier of the Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah of Egypt.[433]
According to Morié, this king had a wife named Masqal Gabra and they had three children, two sons named Kedus Harbe and Lalibala and one daughter.[435]
According to Morié, in 1060 Pope Cyril II of Alexandria ordained Abuna Sawiros as the head of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church after being forced to do so by Badr al-Jamali, the vizier of Caliph al-Mustansir Billah in Egypt.[436] The Pope had initially chosen a different man named Cyril, but he was accused by Badr al-Jamali as bringing Muslims into his home for drinking wine, which is forbidden in Islam.[436] The Pope then sent a different man named Severus, who Morié describes as a "protege" of Badr al-Jamali.[437] Upon the arrival of Severus, Bishop Cyril took his belongings and fled to Dahlak, only to be found and sent to Cairo in 1086 to be executed.[438] Severus attempted to convert Abyssinia to Islam and had seven mosques built, but these were later demolished.[438]
Morié dated his birth to 1030 and his death at the age of 80 to 1110.[438]
"Chronological table of the 8 generations of an Israelitish dynasty, who were not raised to the throne, during the period of the reign of the posterity of the Zagwe."[91]
This section does not appear on Taye Gabra Mariam's version of the list but is included on Tafari's list. Tafari however provided no background information, reign dates or lengths for this line of kings. E. A. Wallis Budge explained these kings reigned at Shewa and were descendants of Dil Na'od.[425]Henry Salt likewise noted the Axumite royal family fled to Shewa after Axum was destroyed by Gudit and reigned there for 330 years until the accession of Yekuno Amlak.[408]
A manuscript from Dabra Libanos included a list which numbered a total of 44 kings and a woman named Masoba Warq.[442] In some traditions, Masoba Warq, whose name means "golden basket",[399] is claimed to be a daughter of Dil Na'od who married Mara Takla Haymanot.[427] She supposedly married him against her father's will and together they took the throne.[413]
A different regnal list from Debre Damo lists all of these kings as rulers of the Zagwe dynasty instead.[345] This list begins the dynasty with a king named "Zagwe", followed by king named "Del Na'ad" (apparently different from the Axumite king of the same name) and then provides the following eight kings as his successors.[345]
The description of this dynasty as an "Israelitish" dynasty is a reference to the Ethiopian monarchy's claimed descent from Solomon. Yekuno Amlak would claim his descent from king Solomon through this line of kings (see Emperors of Ethiopia Family Tree).
Henry Salt listed an additional king named "Asgud" between Bahr Asagad and Edem Asagad.[445] Morié also mentioned a king named "Asged" who, on some regnal lists, was confused with his predecessor under the name "Birasgud-Asgud".[443]
Heading on Tafari Makonnen's List:
"Chronological table of the sovereigns from Yekuno Amlak, Emperor, and of his posterity, all issued from the ancient dynasties which were raised to the throne".[446]
Heading on Taya Gabra Mariam's List:
"Reign of As'e Yekuno Amlak and his descendants".[403]
Historian Manfred Kropp [de] was sceptical of the way this dynasty is often referred to as the "Solomonic" or "Solomonid" dynasty, which he believes was a creation of European Renaissance scholars. He noted that Ethiopian chronicles refer to the throne of the monarchy as the "Throne of David", not Solomon.[447] The 1922 regnal list makes no direct reference to this dynasty being called the "Solomonic" line, only that they were descended from the earlier ancient dynasties.
The co-called Solomonic dynasty is historically verified, but the dates included on this regnal list do not always match with the generally accepted dates used by historians, even when taking into account the 7 or 8-year gap between the Ethiopian calendar and the Gregorian calendar. The page for the List of Emperors of Ethiopia contains the conventional dates used by historians for the reigns of individual monarchs.
Name means "There shall be to him sovereignty".[448]
While many historians accept that Yekuno Amlak became ruler of Ethiopia after defeating the last Zagwe king at the Battle of Ansata, James Bruce related a different tradition where the monk Tekle Haymanot persuaded Na'akueto La'ab to abdicate in favour of Yekuno Amlak, who was reigning at Shewa, where a line of princes from Dil Na'od had continued to rule after the original Solomonic line was deposed by Gudit.[449]
Taye Gabra Mariam stated this king ruled for 13 years, from 1255 to 1268.[5]
E. A. Wallis Budge called this king Senfa 'Ar'ed IV, acknowledging the reigns of Akaptah Tsenfa Ared (no. 167), Atsgaba Seifa Arad (no. 195) and the unnumbered Tsinfa Arad from the Israelite dynasty on Tafari's list.[450]
This emperor's actual name was "Sarwe Iyasus" and his throne name is usually known to be "Mehreka Nan". The name "Badel Nan" is however used in some sources, such as a manuscript held in the Debre Damo monastery.[345]
The following three kings were separated into a different section on Tafari's list, likely because the conquest of three-quarters of Ethiopia by Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi took place during this time. Taye Gabra Mariam's list however made no such break.[456]
Tafari's list states that 15 years after Lebna Dengel ascended to the throne, "Gran devastated Ethiopia for fifteen years".[446] Taye Gabra Mariam used the same dating.[457] Historians however accept the Gregorian dates for the Ethiopian–Adal war as 1529–1543, beginning 22 years after the start of Lebna Dengel's reign instead.
"Lebna Dengel" means "incense of the virgin".[458]
Taye Gabra Mariam stated this king ruled for 30 years, from 1500 to 1530.[5] This results in all kings until Sarsa Dengel having their reign dates pushed back by 2 years compared to Tafari's list.
Gondar was chosen by Emperor Fasilides to be the capital of the Ethiopian empire in 1636. The so-called "Gondarine period" usually refers to the period between the accession of Fasilides in 1632 and the Zemene Mesafint in 1769. Some historians choose to begin the "Gondarine line" of the Solomonic dynasty with Susenyos I.
Tafari's version of this regnal list places the rulers from Sarsa Dengel to Tekle Giyorgis I into a separate dynasty called the "House of Gondar".[459] The emperors from Sarsa Dengel to Za Dengel were grouped with the Gondarine emperors likely because Sarsa Dengel moved the centre of the Ethiopian empire away from Shewa to the Begemder province, where Gondar is located.[460] Taye Gabra Mariam's version of this list did not place these emperors into a separate dynasty and instead simply stated that Fasilides founded Gondar.[461]
The two versions of this list from Tafari Makonnen and Taye Gabra Mariam noticeably differ regarding the dating of the reigns of the Gondarine monarchs. The table below contains both sets of dates.
The regnal list omitted Susenyos II who reigned briefly in 1770 (G.C.). Susenyos II was said to be an illegitimate son of Iyasu II, but his claims were dubious and this is the most likely reason for his omission.
Yakob's reign was divided into 2 parts, interrupted by the brief reign of Za Dengel. However, this regnal list places Za Dengel as a direct successor at the end of Yakob's uninterrupted 9-year reign.
Tafari's regnal list concludes with the end of the first reign of Tekle Giyorgis I, after which the Emperors of Ethiopia had significantly diminished power compared to before. By the time Tekle Giyorgis I begun his reign, Ethiopia had already entered the "Zemene Mesafint" or Era of the Princes, during which the emperor was merely a figurehead. Tekle Giyorgis I himself received the nickname Fiṣame Mengist ("the end of the government"), reflecting his status as the last emperor to exercise authority on his own.[463]
Taye Gabra Mariam's list however continues past the reign of Tekle Giyorgis to include a list of influential Rases who held de facto power during the Zemene Mesafint. This section of Taye's list also includes three emperors who held de facto as well as de jure power beginning with Tewodros II, whose reign brought an end to the "Era of the Princes".
"Rule of the Descendants of the House of Ya'iqob in Shäwa".[464]
Taye Gabra Mariam included a list of rulers of Shewa who were descended from prince Yakob, fourth son of Lebna Dengel, and were the ancestors of Emperor Menelik II, who succeeded Yohannes IV in 1889 (G.C.). Each king is named as the son of the previous king. Taye's list ignores the rulers after Haile Melekot.
Empress Zauditu, the incumbent Ethiopian monarch at the time the regnal list was written, pictured in 1921.
Taye Gabra Mariam ended his regnal list with the then current dynasty, consisting of Menelik II, his grandson Lij Iyasu and Menelik's daughter Empress Zewditu, who was in power at the time the regnal list was written.
Ascended the throne in 1909 A.D./7409 A.M. on the 22nd day of Maskaram.[465]
Sources of information from Louis J. Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie
The following collapsible tables compare the list of kings found in Louis J. Morié's Histoire de l'Éthiopie (Volumes 1 and 2) with the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list.
In the first volume, after the so-called "Blemmyes dynasty", Morié continued naming kings of Nubia, grouped together as the "Nobate dynasty" (548–c. 1145), the "kings of Dongola" (c. 1145–1820) and the "kings of Sennar".[466] However, the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list ignores Nubian and Sudanese kings after the fall of the Kingdom of Kush.
Comparison between Louis J. Morié's Nubian regnal list and the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list
Comparison between Louis J. Morié's Abyssinian regnal list and the 1922 Ethiopian regnal list
In many cases, Morié follows the regnal order and reign lengths found on various Ethiopian regnal lists recorded before the 20th century. Morié's list can be compared with those included in the Wikipedia article for Regnal lists of Ethiopia.
This king was deceived by a woman named Sebat, who overthrew him and became queen.[536] However, she only ruled for a short time and was driven out by Hailou-Ouedem.[536] An invastion of locusts took place during Aizour's reign.[393] Aizour's son suffered from an eye disease and feared blindness, and Aizour claimed he would share the throne and his wealth with whoever could cure his son.[393] A man named Desta succeeded in curing the king's son, married the eldest daughter of the king and was appointed co-regent with the king.[393] The king's son's illness however relapsed after his father and Desta were both dead.[393]
^Examples of this include "Ayba" (አይባ) and "Ayibe" (አይቤ), "Nikti" (ኒክቲ) and "Nekate" (ነካቲ), "Piyankihi" (ፒያንኪሂ) and "Wiyankihi" (ዊያንኪሂ), "Salayba" (ሰላይባ) and "Saladoba" (ሰላዶባ) and "Setwa" (ሲትዋ) and "Sutuwa" (ሱቱዋ).
^For example, Tafari's list stated that for the 200th monarch, Ahywa Sofya, it is Sofya that is her regnal name.[90] The same list states that Mara Takla Haymanot's regnal name was Zagwe.[91] Taye Gabra Mariam's list states that for the 167th monarch, Sartu Tsenfa Asagad, it is "Tsenfa Asagad" that is his regnal name.[92]
^Known as Askndou on Tafari's list.[e] This likely due to a variation in the reading of the name as either "Eskendi" (እስክንዲ) or "Askendi" (አስኬንዲ).
^Known as Adgas on at least one version of Heruy Wolde Selassie's list.[119] This likely due to a variation in the reading of the name as either "Adgala" (አድጋላ) or "Adgasa" (አድጋሳ).
^Known as Lakundu Neworos on Taye Gabra Mariam's list and Lakendun Nowär Ori on Heruy Wolde Selassie's list and Taye Gabra Mariam's The History of the People of Ethiopia.[5][171][112]
^Known as Helena on Tafari's list. The variation of names likely emerged from the similarity of the Ethiopic lettering for "Kalina" (ካሊና) and "Balina" (ባሊና).
^Erroneously named Her Hator (Za Sagado) on Tafari's list and Herhator Zesbado on Taye Gabra Mariam's list.[180][5] This is likely a mistaken repition of the next king's name.
^Known as Akate on Tafari Makonnen's list and Nikti on Taye Gabra Mariam's list.[180][5]
^Ethiopian historian Fisseha Yaze Kassa stated that this king reigned for only 1 month.[198]Heruy Wolde Selassie's regnal list also lists a 1-month reign for this king.[199]Manfred Kropp [de] theorized that the confusion could be a transcibal error resulting from the similarity of the Ethiopian numbers for 1 and 5.[200]
^Tafari's list erroneously calls this king Sannib.
^Name written as Hezbay on both Taye Gabra Mariam's list and Heruy Wolde Selassie's list.[5][199]
^Not named "Kandake" on any known version of this list. However, both Taye Gabra Mariam's list and Heruy Wolde Selassie's list number the next "Kandake" queen as "Kandake II", with the next five "Kandake" queens afterwards having numbering that is one higher than that on Tafari's list.[5][220] This suggests that a queen must be identified as "Kandake I" before Nikanta Kandake. Makeda is called "Kandake" in the Kebra Nagast.[221]
^"Orit" comes from the Syriac word "Urayta", meaning the law of Moses and the Torah.[310]
^Taye Gabra Mariam's list states this king reigned for a full year.[5]
^Taye Gabra Mariam's list states this queen reigned for 2 months instead of 2 days.[5]
^Known as Ailassan Sagal on Tafari's list and Aslal Sen Segel on Taye Gabra Mariam's list.[316][5]
^Known as Tazena on most versions of the list, but at least one version of Heruy Wolde Selassie's list uses "Wozena" instead.[5]
^Tafari's list mistakenly calls this reign the joint rule of Queen Sofya and 'Abreha Atsbeha', treating the brothers as one individual.[90] Both Taye Gabra Mariam's list and Heruy Wolde Selassie's list confirm that this part of the list was intended to state the joint rule of the brothers Abreha and Atsbeha.[5][317]
^The numbering on this list from this point onwards is one ahead of Tafari's list, due to his mistaken conflation of Abreha and Atsbeha as one ruler.
^Different versions of this list conflict with each other on which of the brother ruled for 12 years by himself. Tafari's list and Heruy Wold Selassie's list both state it was Atsbeha who ruled by himself, while Taye Gabra Mariam argued it was Abreha who ruled by himself.[90][5]
^Name written as Amey on Tafari's list, but earlier regnal lists, as well as Taye Gabra Mariam's list, consistently refer to this king as "Ameda".[5][216]
^Name written as Amey II on Tafari's list, but earlier regnal lists, as well as Taye Gabra Mariam's list, consistently refer to this king as "Ameda".[5][216]
^All known versions of the list use "Ezana" for this monarch, but this name refers to the much earlier king of Axum of the same name (likely the same person as Abreha I). It is likely that this king is meant to be Zitana, father of Kaleb according to some regnal lists.
^Taye Gabra Mariam's list does not give a reign length and only states this king's reign is "undocumentated".[5]
^Heruy Wolde Selassie specified this king reigned for 7 hours, while Taye Gabra Mariam simply stated this king's reigned lasted "until noon".[5] Tafari's list states "half a day".
^Tafari's list does not add an additional month to this king's reign.
^Reigned for a full year according to Tafari's list.>
^Known as Saint Arbe on Taye Gabra Mariam's list.[403]
^Mistakenly named Amde Tseyon on Tafari's list.[446]
^Known as Bede Mariam on Taye Gabra Mariam's list.[5]
^Tafari's list does not list any additional months to the reign years.
^Tafari's list does not list any additional months to the reign years.
^Known as Degu-Johannis on Tafari's list, meaning "Yohannes the Good".[459] Known as Yohannes the Kind on Taye Gabra Mariam's list.[461]
^Third monarch named "Yohannes" on this list, but was fourth to reign under this name. Yohannes III was one of the emperors of the Zemene Mesafint who was omitted from this list.
^Heruy Wolde Selassie's list added "Malis" to this king's name.[119]
^Louis J. Morié did not provide reign dates for this king for unclear reasons.
^ abFluehr-Lobban, Carolyn (2021). "Chapter 4: Queen Balqis, "Queen of Sheba"". In Hobson, Janell (ed.). The Routledge Companion to Black Women's Cultural Histories. Routledge. ISBN978-0367198374.
^Yamauchi, Edwin M. (2006). "Acts 8:26–40: Why the Ethiopian Eunuch Was Not from Ethiopia". In Bock, Darrell L.; Fanning, Buist M. (eds.). Interpreting the New Testament Text: Introduction to the Art and Science of Exegesis. Crossway. pp. 351–66.
^Page, Willie F.; R. Hunt Davis, Jr., eds. (2005), "Makeda, Queen (queen of Sheba)", Encyclopedia of African History and Culture, vol. 1 (revised ed.), Facts on File, pp. 158–159
^ abcdF.A.E. (1928). "Reviews: Seven Years in Southern Abyssinia by Arnold Wienholt / In the Country of the Blue Nile C. F. Rey. With a foreword by Major-Gen. Lord Edward Gleichen". The Geographical Journal. 71 (3): 295.
^Baker, Darrell D. (2008). Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I – Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC. Cairo: The American University in Cairo press. p. 277. ISBN978-977-416-221-3.
^Nadia Durrani, The Tihamah Coastal Plain of South-West Arabia in its Regional context c. 6000 BC – AD 600 (Society for Arabian Studies Monographs No. 4) . Oxford: Archaeopress, 2005, p. 121.
^Bernal, Martin (1987). Black Athena: The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (Volume 1: The Fabrication of Ancient Greece 1785–1985). London: Free Association Books. p. 19.
^Snowden, Frank M. (1970). Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 145. ISBN978-0-674-07626-6.
^The Autonomous Orthodox Metropolia of Western Europe and the Americas (ROCOR) (2004). St. Hilarion Calendar of Saints for the year of our Lord. Austin, Texas: St. Hilarion Press. p. 70.
Kropp, Manfred (2006). "Ein später Schüler des Julius Africanus zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts in Äthiopien". In Wallraf, Martin (ed.). Julius Africanus und die christliche Weltchronistik (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN978-3-11-019105-9.
Gabra Maryam, Alaqa Tayya (1987). History of the People of Ethiopia (in Amharic and English). Translated by Grover Hudson; Tekeste Negash. Uppsala: Centre for Multiethnic Research (Uppsala University – Faculty of Arts). ISBN91-86624-12-1. ISSN0281-448X.
Morkot, Robert G. (2003). "On the priestly origin of the Napatan kings: The adaptation, demise and resurrection of ideas in writing Nubian history". In O' Conner, David; Andrew, Reid (eds.). Ancient Egypt in Africa. London: UCL Press. pp. 154–156. ISBN1-84472-000-4.
Selassie, Sergew Hable (1972a). Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270. Addis Ababa.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
Selassie, Sergew Hable (1972b). "The Problem of Gudit". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 10 (1): 113–124. ISSN0304-2243. JSTOR41965849.
Tamrat, Taddesse (1972). Church and State in Ethiopia. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
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