Urez (DNK)

Hifenacija ili jednolančani urez, ili haplotomski prelom, ili lomljenje lanca, je rez fosfodiesterske veze između dva susjedna nukleotida na jednom od dva lanca nukleinske kiseline. U genetičkom inženjerstvu ili tokom mutacija, urez je mehanizam koji omogućava inserciju sekvence nukleotida, ili prenosivog ili transpozonskog elementa, u genom ćelije domaćina.

To je diskontinuitet u dvolančanoj molekuli DNK gdje nema fosfodiesterske veze između susjednih nukleotida jednog lanac, obično oštećenjem ili djelovanjem enzima. Urezi dozvoljavaju lancima DNK da se odmotaju tokom replikacije, a takođe se smatra da imaju ulogu u mehanizmima popravka neusklađenosti DNK koji popravljaju greške i na vodećim i na zaostalim lancima kćerima.[1]

Formiranje

Dijagram prikazuje efekte ureza na DNK koja se ukršta u uvrnutom plazmidu. Urezivanje se može koristiti za rasipanje energije koju zadržavaju stanja koja se ukrštaju. Urezi omogućavaju DNK da poprimi kružni oblik.[2]

Dijagram prikazuje efekte ureza na DNK forme koje se ukrštaju. Plazmid je čvrsto namotan u negativni superheliks (a). Da bi se oslobodila stanja koja se sijeku, torzijska energija se mora osloboditi korištenjem ureza (b). Nakon uvođenja ureza u sistem, negativna superzavojnica se postepeno odmotava (c) sve dok ne dostigne svoje konačno, kružno, plazmidno stanje (d).[2]

Izrezana DNK može biti rezultat oštećenja DNK ili svrsishodnih, reguliranih biomolekulskih reakcija koje se provode u ćeliji. Tokom obrade, DNK se može urezati fizičkim smicanjem, prekomjernim sušenjem ili enzimima. Pretjerano grubo rukovanje pipetiranjem ili vorteksiranjem stvara fizički stres koji može dovesti do lomova i rezova u DNK. Prekomjerno isušivanje DNK također može razbiti fosfodiestarsku vezu u DNK i rezultirati urezima. Enzimi urezne endonukleaze mogu pomoći u ovom procesu. Jednolančani prekid (urez) u DNK može se formirati hidrolizom i naknadnim uklanjanjem fosfatne grupe unutar spiralne kičme. To dovodi do drugačije konformacije DNK, gdje se formira vodikova veza, umjesto nedostajućeg dijela DNK okosnice kako bi se očuvala struktura.[3]

Popravka ureza

Ligaze su svestrani i sveprisutni enzimi koji spajaju 3’ hidroksilne i 5’ fosfatne krajeve kako bi formirali fosfodiestersku vezu, što ih čini neophodnim za popravku urezane DNK i na kraju za vjernost genoma. Ova biološka uloga je također bila izuzetno vrijedna u zatvaranju ljepljivih krajeva plazmida u molekulskom kloniranju. Njihov značaj je potvrđen činjenicom da većina organizama ima višestruke ligaze posvećene specifičnim putevima popravljanja DNK. U eubakterijama ove ligaze pokreću NAD+, a ne ATP.[4] Svaka ureu+zna lokacija zahtijeva 1 ATP ili 1 NAD+ za napajanje popravke ligaze.[4]

Minimalistički mehanizam zatvaranja ureza DNK pomoću DNK ligaze

Da bi spojila ove fragmente, ligaza napreduje kroz tri koraka:

  1. Dodatak adenozin-monofosfatne (AMP) grupe enzimu, koji se naziva adenililacija,
  2. Prijenos adenozin-monofosfata u DNK i
  3. Zaptivanje udubljenja ili formiranje fosfodiestarske veze.[5][6]

Jedan poseban primjer zatvaranja ureza koji katalizira ligazu je E. coli NAD+ zavisna DNK ligaza, LigA. LigA je relevantan primjer jer je strukturno sličan grupi enzima koji se nalazi u svim vrstama bakterija.[7]

Ligaze imaju metalno mjesto vezanja koje je sposobno prepoznati ureze u DNK. Ligaza formira DNK-adenilatni kompleks koji pomaže pri prepoznavanju.[8] Sa ljudskom DNK ligazom, ovo formira kristalizirani kompleks. Kompleks, koji ima DNK-adenilat intermedijer, omogućava DNK-ligazi I da uvede konformacijsku promjenu u DNK za izolaciju i naknadnu popravku ureza DNK.[9]

Reference

  1. ^ Williams JS, Kunkel TA. Ribonucleotides in DNA: Origins, repair and consequences. DNA repair. 2014;19:27-37. doi:10.1016/j.dnarep.2014.03.029
  2. ^ a b Chao Ji, Lingyun Zhang, and Pengye Wang, "Configuration Transitions of Free Circular DNA System Induced by Nicks," Journal of Nanomaterials, vol. 2015, Article ID 546851, 7 pages, 2015. doi:10.1155/2015/546851
  3. ^ Aymami, J.; Coll, M.; Marel, G. A. van der; Boom, J. H. van; Wang, A. H.; Rich, A. (1. 4. 1990). "Molecular structure of nicked DNA: a substrate for DNA repair enzymes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 87 (7): 2526–2530. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.7.2526. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 53722. PMID 2320572.
  4. ^ a b Timson, David J; Singleton, Martin R; Wigley, Dale B (30. 8. 2000). "DNA ligases in the repair and replication of DNA". Mutation Research/DNA Repair. 460 (3–4): 301–318. doi:10.1016/S0921-8777(00)00033-1. PMID 10946235.
  5. ^ Ellenberger T, Tomkinson AE (2008). "Eukaryotic DNA ligases: structural and functional insights". Annu. Rev. Biochem. 77: 313–38. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.77.061306.123941. PMC 2933818. PMID 18518823.
  6. ^ Sriskanda V, Shuman S (januar 1998). "Chlorella virus DNA ligase: nick recognition and mutational analysis". Nucleic Acids Res. 26 (2): 525–31. doi:10.1093/nar/26.2.525. PMC 147278. PMID 9421510.
  7. ^ Nandakumar, Jayakrishnan; Nair, Pravin A.; Shuman, Stewart (27. 4. 2007). "Last stop on the road to repair: structure of E. coli DNA ligase bound to nicked DNA-adenylate". Molecular Cell. 26 (2): 257–271. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2007.02.026. ISSN 1097-2765. PMID 17466627.
  8. ^ Odell, Mark; Sriskanda, Verl; Shuman, Stewart; Nikolov, Dimitar B. (1. 11. 2000). "Crystal Structure of Eukaryotic DNA Ligase–Adenylate Illuminates the Mechanism of Nick Sensing and Strand Joining". Molecular Cell. 6 (5): 1183–1193. doi:10.1016/S1097-2765(00)00115-5. PMID 11106756.
  9. ^ Pascal, John M.; O'Brien, Patrick J.; Tomkinson, Alan E.; Ellenberger, Tom (25. 11. 2004). "Human DNA ligase I completely encircles and partially unwinds nicked DNA". Nature. 432 (7016): 473–478. doi:10.1038/nature03082. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 15565146. S2CID 3105417.

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