RAD51

RAD51
Dostupne strukture
PDBPretraga ortologa: PDBe RCSB
Spisak PDB ID kodova

1N0W, 1B22

Identifikatori
AliasiRAD51
Vanjski ID-jeviOMIM: 179617 MGI: 97890 HomoloGene: 2155 GeneCards: RAD51
Lokacija gena (čovjek)
Hromosom 15 (čovjek)
Hrom.Hromosom 15 (čovjek)[1]
Hromosom 15 (čovjek)
Genomska lokacija za RAD51
Genomska lokacija za RAD51
Bend15q15.1Početak40,694,774 bp[1]
Kraj40,732,340 bp[1]
Obrazac RNK ekspresije


Više referentnih podataka o ekspresiji
Ontologija gena
Molekularna funkcija nucleotide binding
vezivanje sa DNK
ATP-dependent activity, acting on DNA
DNA strand exchange activity
DNA polymerase binding
protein C-terminus binding
GO:0001948, GO:0016582 vezivanje za proteine
four-way junction DNA binding
vezivanje identičnih proteina
endodeoxyribonuclease activity
ATP binding
single-stranded DNA binding
double-stranded DNA binding
GO:0043142 single-stranded DNA helicase activity
chromatin binding
vezivanje enzima
Ćelijska komponenta citoplazma
site of double-strand break
PML body
citoskelet
nukleoplazma
centar organizacije mikrotubula
nuclear chromosome
mitochondrial matrix
Jedarce
mitohondrija
perinuklearno područje citoplazme
Hromatin
jedro
citosol
GO:0009327 makromolekulani kompleks
kondenzovani hromosom
kondenzovani nuklearni hromosom
lateralni element
hromosom
Biološki proces strand invasion
GO:1903211 mitotic recombination-dependent replication fork processing
reciprocal meiotic recombination
DNA recombination
regulation of double-strand break repair via homologous recombination
DNA metabolic process
positive regulation of DNA ligation
cellular response to camptothecin
double-strand break repair via homologous recombination
cellular response to ionizing radiation
mitotic recombination
protein homooligomerization
GO:0100026 Popravka DNK
DNA unwinding involved in DNA replication
cellular response to DNA damage stimulus
interstrand cross-link repair
DNA recombinase assembly
negative regulation of G0 to G1 transition
telomere maintenance via recombination
telomere maintenance via telomere lengthening
replication fork processing
GO:0007126 Mejoza
GO:0051178 chromosome organization involved in meiotic cell cycle
Izvori:Amigo / QuickGO
Ortolozi
VrsteČovjekMiš
Entrez
Ensembl
UniProt
RefSeq (mRNK)

NM_001164269
NM_001164270
NM_002875
NM_133487

NM_011234

RefSeq (bjelančevina)

NP_001157741
NP_001157742
NP_002866
NP_597994

NP_035364

Lokacija (UCSC)Chr 15: 40.69 – 40.73 Mbn/a
PubMed pretraga[2][3]
Wikipodaci
Pogledaj/uredi – čovjekPogledaj/uredi – miš

RAD51 je eukariotski gen. Enzim kodiran ovim genom član je porodice proteina RAD51 koji pomaže u popravljanju dvolančanog prekida DNK. Članovi porodice RAD51 su homologni bakterijskom l RecA, a kod Archaea l RadA i Rad51 Saccharomyces cerevisiae.[4][5] Protein je visoko konzerviran u većini eukariota, od kvasca do ljudi.[6]

Aminokiselinska sekvenca

Dužina polipeptidnog lanca je 339 aminokiselina, a molekulska težina 36.966 Da.[7]

1020304050
MAMQMQLEANADTSVEEESFGPQPISRLEQCGINANDVKKLEEAGFHTVE
AVAYAPKKELINIKGISEAKADKILAEAAKLVPMGFTTATEFHQRRSEII
QITTGSKELDKLLQGGIETGSITEMFGEFRTGKTQICHTLAVTCQLPIDR
GGGEGKAMYIDTEGTFRPERLLAVAERYGLSGSDVLDNVAYARAFNTDHQ
TQLLYQASAMMVESRYALLIVDSATALYRTDYSGRGELSARQMHLARFLR
MLLRLADEFGVAVVITNQVVAQVDGAAMFAADPKKPIGGNIIAHASTTRL
YLRKGRGETRICKIYDSPCLPEAEAMFAINADGVGDAKD
Simboli

Varijante

Prijavljene su dvije alternativno prerađene varijante transkripta ovog gena, koje kodiraju različite proteine. Postoje varijante transkripta koji koriste alternativne poliA signale.

Porodica

U sisara je identifikovano sedam gena sličnih recA: Rad51, Rad51L1/B, Rad51L2/C, Rad51L3/D, XRCC2, XRCC3 i DMC1/Lim15.[8] Svi ovi proteini, osim DMC1 specifičnog za mejozu, neophodni su za razvoj sisara. Rad51 je član RecA-like NTPases.

Funkcija

Kod ljudi, RAD51 je 339-aminokiselinski protein koji ima glavnu ulogu u homolognoj rekombinaciji DNK tokom popravljanja dvostrukog lanca. U ovom se procesu odvija razmjena DNK lanca ovisna o ATP-u u kojoj matrica lanca napada invadirane nizove homolognih molekula DNK. RAD51 je uključen u potragu za homologijom i fazama uparivanja niti.

Za razliku od ostalih proteina koji su uključeni u metabolizam DNK, porodica RecA/Rad51 stvara spiralni nukleoproteinski filament na DNK-u.[9]

Ovaj protein može stupiti u interakciju s ssDNK-vezujućim proteinom RPA, BRCA2, PALB2[10] i RAD52.

Strukturna osnova za stvaranje filamenta Rad51 i njegov funkcionalni mehanizam i dalje su slabo razumljivi. Međutim, nedavna istraživanja koja su koristila fluorescentno označenu Rad51,[11] ukazala su da se fragmenti Rad51 izdužuju višestrukim nukleacijskim događajima praćenim rastom, a ukupni fragment završava kada dostigne oko 2 μm dužine. Međutim, razdvajanje Rad51 od dsDNA je sporo i nepotpuno, što sugerira da postoji zaseban mehanizam koji to postiže.

Ekspresija RAD51 u kanceru

U eukariotima, protein RAD51 ima središnju ulogu u homolognom rekombinacijskom popravku. RAD51 katalizira prijenos lanaca između oštećene sekvence i njenog neoštećenog homologa kako bi omogućio ponovnu sintezu oštećenog područja (vidi homologni rekombinacijski modeli).

Brojne studije pokazuju da je RAD51 prekomjerno eksprimiran kod različitih karcinoma (vidi Tabelu 1). U mnogim od ovih studija, povišena ekspresija RAD51 korelira sa smanjenim preživljavanjem pacijenta. Postoje i izvještaji o nedovoljnoj ekspresiji RAD51 kod karcinoma (vidi Tabelu 1).

Tamo gdje je zabilježena ekspresija RAD51, zajedno s ekspresijom BRCA1, pronađena je inverzna korelacija.[12][13] Ovo je protumačeno kao selekcija za povećanu ekspresiju RAD51 i time povećanu homolognu rekombinacijsku popravku (HRR) (pomoću HRR RAD52-RAD51 rezervnog puta[14]) da nadoknadi dodano oštećenje DNK preostalo kada je nedostajao BRCA1.[12][13][15]

Mnogi karcinomi imaju epigenetičke nedostatke u različitim genima za obnavljanje DNK, što vjerovatno uzrokuje povećanu pojavu nepopravljene oštećenja DNA. Prekomjerna ekspresija RAD51 viđena kod mnogih karcinoma može odražavati kompenzacijsku prekomjernu ekspresiju RAD51 (kao kod nedostatka BRCA1) i povećani HRR, da bi se barem djelimično riješio takvog viška oštećenja DNK.

Nedovoljno eksprimiranje RAD51 samo bi po sebi povećalo oštećenja bez popravljanja DNK. Greške replikacije nakon ovih oštećenja (vidi Sintska translezija), dovele bi do povećanih mutacija i raka.

Tabela 1: Ekspresija RAD51 u sporadičnim kancerima
Kancer Nad– ili podekspresija Učestalost promijenjenih ekspresija Metod procjene Referance
Rak dojke (invazivni duktusni) Nadekspresija Imunohistohemija [12]
Rak dojke (BRCA1-deficijentni) Nadekspresija iRNK [13]
Rak dojke (negativan za progesteronski receptor) Nadekspresija iRNK [16]
Rak dojke Podekspresija 30% Imunohistohemija [17]
Rak gušterače Nadekspresija 74% Imunohistohemija [18]
Rak gušterače Nadekspresija 66% Imunohistohemija [19]
Kanceri glave i vrata Nadekspresija 75% Imunohistohemija [20]
Rak prostate Nadekspresija 33% Imunohistohemija [21]
Plućni rak ne malih ćelija Nadekspresija 29% Imunohistohemija [22]
Sarkom mehkog tkiva Nadekspresija 95% Imunohistohemija [23]
Kancer jednjačkih pločastih ćelija Nadekspresija 47% Imunohistohemija [24]
Karcinom bubrežnih ćelija Podekspresija 100% Proteinski Western blot , iRNK [25]

U popravku dvostrukog prekida

U popravaku dvostrukog prekida (DSB) homologna rekombinacija započinje resekcijom 5' do 3' lanaca. Kod ljudi, nukleaza DNA2 presijeca 5'-do-3' lanac na DSB da bi stvorila 3' jednolančana presavijena nit DNK[26][27]

Određeni broj paraloga (vidi sliku) RAD51 ključni su za regrutovanje ili stabilizaciju proteina RAD51 na mjestima oštećenja DNk kod kičmenjaka.

Grafički prikaz proteina iz svakog domena života. Svaki protein je prikazan vodoravno, sa homolognim domenima na svakom proteinu označenim bojom: Proteinski domeni u homolognim proteinima povezanim sa rekombinacijom konzerviraju se putem tri glavne grupe života: arheje, bakterije i eukarioti.

U kičmenjacima i biljkama, pet Homologija sekvence paraloga RAD51 eksprimirano je u somatskim ćelijama, uključujući RAD51B (RAD51L1), RAD51C (RAD51L2), RAD51D (RAD51L3 ), XRCC2 i XRCC3. Svaki od njih dijeli oko 25% identiteta aminokiselinskih sekvenci sa RAD51 i međusobno.[28]

Izvan biljaka i kičmenjaka postoji mnogo šira raznolikost proteina para51, rekombinaza para51. U pupajućem kvascu, Saccharomyces cerevisiae prisutni su paralozi Rad55 i Rad57, koji čine kompleks koji asocira na kvaščev Rad51 na ssDNK Rekombinazni paralog rfs-1 nalazi se u obloj glisti Caenorhabditis elegans (modelni organizam), gdje nije bitna za homolognu rekombinaciju. Među arheja parabole za rekombinazu RadB i RadC nalaze se u mnogim organizmima koji pripadaju Euryarchaeota, dok se čini da je veća raznolikost srodnih paraloga za rekombinazu pronađena u Crenarchaea uključujući Ral1, Ral2, Ral3, RadC, RadC1, i RadC2.

Paralozi RAD51 doprinose efikasnom popravljanju dvostruko lanca DNK homologna rekombinacija, a iscrpljivanje bilo kojeg paraloga često rezultira značajnim smanjenjem učestalosti homologne rekombinacije.[29]

Paralozi tvore dva identificirana kompleksa: BCDX2 (RAD51B-RAD51C-RAD51D-XRCC2) i CX3 (RAD51C-XRCC3). Ova dva kompleksa djeluju u dvije različite faze homologne rekombinacije popravljanja DNK. Kompleks BCDX2 odgovoran je za regrutovanje ili stabilizaciju RAD51 na mjestima oštećenja.[29] Čini se da kompleks BCDX2 djeluje olakšavajući sklop ili stabilnost RAD51 nukleoproteinski filament. Kompleks CX3 djeluje nizvodno od regrutacije RAD51 da ošteti mjesta.[29]

Još jedan kompleks, BRCA1PALB2BRCA2 kompleks i RAD51 paralozi sarađuju kako bi učitali RAD51 na ssDNK presvučenu sa RPA kako bi stvorili esencijalni rekombinacioni intermedijer, žarišna nit RAD51-ssDNK[30]

U miševa i ljudi, kompleks BRCA2 prvenstveno posreduje u urednom sastavljanju RAD51 na ssDNK, obliku koji je aktivan za homologno uparivanje i invaziju lanaca.[31] BRCA2 also redirects RAD51 from dsDNA and prevents dissociation from ssDNA.[31] Međutim, u prisustvu mutacije BRCA2, čovjekov RAD52 može posredovati sklop RAD51 na ssDNK i zamijeniti BRCA2 u homolognoj rekombinacijskoj popravci DNK,[32] mada sa nižom efikasnošću od BRCA2.

Daljnji koraci detaljno su opisani u članku Homologna rekombinacija.

Rad51 ima ključnu funkciju u mejotskoj profazi kod miševa i njegov gubitak dovodi do iscrpljenja kasne profaze I spermatocita.[33]

Tokom mejoze, dvije rekombinaze, Rad51 i Dmc1, međusobno djeluju s jednolančanom DNK formirajući specijalizirane filamente koji su prilagođeni za olakšavanje rekombinacija između homolognih hromozoma . I Rad51 i Dmc1 imaju suštinsku sposobnost samoagregacije.[34] Prisustvo Dmc1 stabilizira susjedne niti Rad51 sugerirajući da unakrsni odgovor između ove dvije rekombinaze može uticati na njihova biohemijska svojstva.

U starijih i hemoterapijom tretiranih žena, oociti i folikule iscrpljeni su apoptozom (programirana ćelijska smrt) što dovodi do otkazivanja jajnika. Apoptoza oocita izazvana oštećenjem DNK zavisi od efikasnosti mehanizma popravka DNK, koji opada s godinama. Preživljavanje jajnih ćelija nakon hemoterapije ili starenja može se poboljšati povećanom ekspresijom Rad51.[35] Otpornost oocita na apoptozu, inducirana Rad51 vjerojatno je posljedica središnje uloge Rad51 u homolognoj rekombinaciji i saniranju oštećenja DNK.

MikroRNK kontrola ekspresije RAD51

U sisara, mikroRNK (miRNK) regulišu oko 60% transkripcijske aktivnosti gena koji kodiraju proteine.[36] Neke miRNK također prolaze kroz utišavanje povezano sa metilacijom u ćelijama karcinoma.[37][38] Ako se represivna miRNK utiša hipermetilacijom ili delecijom, tada gen koji cilja postaje prekomjerno eksprimiran.

Identificirano je najmanje osam miRNK koje potiskuju ekspresiju RAD51 , a čini se da je pet od njih važno za rak. Naprimjer, kod trostrukog negativnog karcinoma dojke (TNBC), dolazi do prekomjerne ekspresije miR-155, zajedno sa represijom prema "RAD51".[39] Dalji testovi su direktno pokazali da transfekcija ćelija raka dojke vektorom koji prekomjerno eksprimira miR-155 potiskuje RAD51, uzrokujući smanjenu homolognu rekombinaciju i povećanu osetljivost na ionizirajuće zračenje.[39]

Još četiri miRNK koje potiskuju RAD51 (miR-148b * i miR-193b*,[40] miR-506,[41] i miR-34a[42]) su podeksprimirani u kancerima, što bi moglo dovesti do indukcije RAD51.

Podekspresija miR-148b* i miR-193b* inducira uočenu ekspresiju RAD51.[40] Deletions of 148b* and miR-193b* in serous ovarian tumors correlate with increased incidences of (possibly carcinogenic) losses of heterozygosity (LOH). This excess LOH was thought to be due to excess recombination caused by induced expression of RAD51.[40]

Premala ekspresija miR-506 povezana je s ranim periodom pojave recidiva (i smanjenim preživljavanjem) kod pacijenata sa epitelnim karcinomom jajnika.[43]

Metilacija promotora miR-34a, rezultira podekspresijom miR-34a, uočenom u 79% karcinoma prostate i 63% primarnih melanoma.[44] > Niže izraženi nivoi miR-34a također se javljaju u 63% karcinoma pluća nemalih ćelija[45] i 36% rakova debelog crijava.[46] miR-34a je također općenito podeksprimiran u primarnim tumorima neuroblastoma.[47]

Tabela 2 sažima ovih pet mikroRNK, njihovu prekomjernu ili premalu ekspresiju i karcinome kod kojih je zabilježeno da se javlja njihova promijenjena ekspresija.

Tabela 2: Promijenjena ekspresija mikroRNK koja utiče na ekspresiju RAD51 u sporadičnim karcinomima
MiKroRNK Nad/Podekspresija miRNK Kancer Reference
miR-155 Nadekspresija Tronegativni rak dojke [39]
miR-148b* Podekspresija Rak jajnika [40]
miR-193b* Podekspresija Rak jajnika [40]
miR-506 Podekspresija Rak jajnika [43]
miR-34a Podekspresija Rak prostate, Melanom [44]
Rak pluća ne malih ćelija [45]
Rak debelog crijeva [46]
Neuroblastom [47]

Podaci sažeti u Tabeli 2 sugeriraju da se podekspresija mikroRNK (uzrokujući indukciju RAD51) često javlja kod karcinoma. Čini se da je nadekspresija mikroRNK koja uzrokuje potiskivanje RAD51 rjeđa. Podaci u Tabeli 1 (gore) ukazuju da je općenito prekomjerna ekspresija RAD51 češća kod karcinoma nego podekspresija.

Identificirane su i tri druge mikroRNK, prema različitim kriterijima, kao vjerovatne da potiskuju RAD51 (miR-96,[48] miR-203,[49] and miR-103/107[50]). Zatim su ove mikroRNK testirane nadekspresijom u ćelijama in vitro i utvrđeno je da zaista potiskuju RAD51 . Ova represija uglavnom je bila povezana sa smanjenim HR i povećanom osetljivošću ćelija na agense koji oštećuju DNK.

Patologija

Utvrđeno je i da ovaj protein komunicira sa PALB2 [10] i BRCA2, što može biti važno za ćelijski odgovor na oštećenje DNK. Pokazano je da BRCA2 regulira i unutarćelijsku lokalizaciju i sposobnost vezivanja DNK ovog proteina. Gubitak ovih kontrola nakon inaktivacije BRCA2 može biti ključni događaj koji dovodi do genomske nestabilnosti i tumorigeneze.[51]

Nekoliko izmjena gena Rad51 povezano je s povećanim rizikom od razvoja karcinoma dojke. Proteini osjetljivosti na rak dojke BRCA2 i PALB2 kontroliraju funkciju Rad51 na putu za popravka DNK homolognom rekombinacijom.[10][52] Pored podataka navedenih u Tabeli 1, identificirani su povećani nivoi ekspresije RAD51 u metastatskom karcinomu mliječnih žlijezda pasa, što ukazuje da genomska nestabilnost ima važnu ulogu u karcinogenezi ovog tipa tumora.[53][54][55][56]

Fanconijeva anemija (FA) je nasljedni poremećaj koji karakterizira ćelijska preosjetljivost na agense za umrežavanje DNK. Izvješteno je da dominantna negativnia mutacija u genu Rad51 dovodi do FA fenotipa sa karakteristikama mentalna retardacija|mentalne retardacije.[57][58] Ovaj izvještaj uključuje dokaze da Rad 51 posredovana homologna rekombinacija popravka vjerovatno ima važnu ulogu u neurorazviću.

Interakcije

Pokazano je da RAD51 ima interakcije sa:

Reference

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Disputed submerged rock in the Yellow Sea For the island in the Indian Ocean, see Socotra. Ieodo redirects here. For the 1977 film by Kim Ki-young, see Iodo (film). 32°07′22.63″N 125°10′56.81″E / 32.1229528°N 125.1824472°E / 32.1229528; 125.1824472 Socotra RockSocotra Rock location mapSummit depth4.6 metresTranslation Ieodo (이어도, 離於島) Parangdo (파랑도, 波浪島)[1] Suyan Islet (苏岩礁, Sūyán Jiāo) LocationLocationYellow SeaCoor...

 

Municipality in Aragon, SpainCarenasMunicipality SealCarenasShow map of AragonCarenasShow map of SpainCarenasShow map of EuropeCoordinates: 41°17′N 1°48′W / 41.283°N 1.800°W / 41.283; -1.800Country SpainAutonomous community AragonProvinceZaragozaArea • Total31 km2 (12 sq mi)Population (2018)[1] • Total177 • Density5.7/km2 (15/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2...

Artikel ini membutuhkan rujukan tambahan agar kualitasnya dapat dipastikan. Mohon bantu kami mengembangkan artikel ini dengan cara menambahkan rujukan ke sumber tepercaya. Pernyataan tak bersumber bisa saja dipertentangkan dan dihapus.Cari sumber: Kantor Luar Negeri, Persemakmuran, dan Pembangunan – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTOR Kantor Luar Negeri, Persemakmuran, dan PembangunanForeign, Commonwealth & Development OfficeGedung Ka...

 

American comedian Chris DistefanoDistefano in 2014PseudonymChrissy DBirth nameChristopher Paul Anthony DistefanoBorn (1984-08-26) August 26, 1984 (age 39)Brooklyn, New York, U.S.MediumStand-uppodcasttelevisionAlma materSt. Joseph's College (BA)New York Institute of Technology (DPT)Years active2009–presentGenresObservational comedyPartner(s)Jasmine CanuelasChildren3Notable works and rolesGuy CodeGirl CodeHey Babe!History Hyenas Chris Distefano Presents: Chrissy ChaosWebsiteOff...

 

  لمعانٍ أخرى، طالع ميخائيل فيليبس (توضيح). ميخائيل فيليبس   معلومات شخصية الميلاد 29 يونيو 1943 (80 سنة)  بروكلين  مواطنة الولايات المتحدة  الزوجة جوليا فيليبس (1966–1974)  الحياة العملية المدرسة الأم كلية الحقوق بجامعة نيويورك  [لغات أخرى]‏كلية دارتموثجام...

American academic F. O. MatthiessenMatthiessen (right) with Russell Cheney, Normandy, Summer 1925BornFrancis Otto Matthiessen(1902-02-19)February 19, 1902Pasadena, California, USDiedApril 1, 1950(1950-04-01) (aged 48)Boston, Massachusetts, USResting placeSpringfield Cemetery, Springfield, MassachusettsAlma materYale, Oxford and HarvardOccupation(s)Historian, literary critic, educatorKnown forAmerican RenaissancePartnerRussell CheneyAwardsDeForest and Alpheus Henry Snow Prizes, ...

 

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: George Wheeler explorer – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it ...

 

Crazy in Love Beyoncé feat. Jay-Z Veröffentlichung 18. Mai 2003 Länge 3:56 Genre(s) R&B, Hip-Hop Text Beyoncé Knowles, Rich Harrison, Eugene Record, Shawn Carter Musik Rich Harrison, Beyoncé Knowles Auszeichnung(en) Grammy 2004: Best Rap/Sung Collaboration, Best R&B Song Album Dangerously in Love Crazy in Love ist ein Lied der amerikanischen R&B-Sängerin Beyoncé Knowles. Es wurde am 18. Mai 2003 als Single aus ihrem Debütalbum Dangerously in Love ausgekoppelt. Seit der Au...

Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang pasal 3 Kitab Bilangan dalam Alkitab Kristen dan Ibrani. Untuk bilangan dalam arti angka 3, lihat 3 (angka). Bilangan 3Kitab Bilangan lengkap pada Kodeks Leningrad, dibuat tahun 1008.KitabKitab BilanganKategoriTauratBagian Alkitab KristenPerjanjian LamaUrutan dalamKitab Kristen4← pasal 2 pasal 4 → Bilangan 3 (disingkat Bil 3) adalah pasal ketiga Kitab Bilangan dalam Alkitab Ibrani dan Perjanjian Lama di Alkitab Kristen. Termasuk dalam kumpulan ki...

 

Overview of tourism in Rajasthan, India Schematic map of Rajasthan Travel map Rajasthan is one of the most popular tourist destinations in India, for both domestic and international tourists. Rajasthan attracts tourists for its historical forts, palaces, art and culture with its slogan Padharo Mhare Desh (Welcome to my land.)[1] The capital city, Jaipur, also known as Pink City, is a very popular tourist destination and is a part of the Golden Triangle. The Walled City of Jaipur is on...

 

Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!