Zhang Xianzhong

Zhang Xianzhong 張獻忠
Emperor of the Xi dynasty
Reign	1644–1647
Born	(1606-09-18)18 September 1606
Died	2 January 1647(1647-01-02) (aged 40)
Spouse	Lady Chen (daughter of Chen Yan)
Names Zhang Xianzhong (張獻忠) Era name and dates Dashun (大順): 1644–1647 Posthumous name Emperor Gao (高皇帝) Temple name Taizu (太祖)
Dynasty	Xi
Seal[note 1]

In this Chinese name, the family name is Zhang.

Zhang Xianzhong
Traditional Chinese	張獻忠
Simplified Chinese	张献忠
Transcriptions Standard Mandarin Hanyu Pinyin Zhāng Xiànzhōng Wade–Giles Chang Hsien-chung

Zhang Xianzhong (張獻忠 or Chang Hsien-chung; 18 September 1606 – 2 January 1647), courtesy name Bingwu (秉吾), art name Jingxuan (敬軒), was a Chinese peasant leader who led a peasant rebellion from Yan'an wei, Shaanxi (today Yulin, Shaanxi province) during the Ming-Qing transition. He conquered Sichuan in 1644, and named himself king and later emperor^[2] of the Xi dynasty. His rule in Sichuan was brief, and he was killed by the invading Qing army. He is commonly associated with the massacres in Sichuan that depopulated the region.^[3][4] However, the extent of his killings is disputed.^[5]

Biography

Early life

Zhang was born in Liushujian (柳树涧; literally 'willow spring', modern Dingbian, Shaanxi province), in 1606 into a poor family. He was described as tall in stature, had a yellow complexion and a "tiger chin" (虎頷, meaning an impressive beard), and hence was given the nickname "Yellow Tiger".^[6][7] He served in the Ming army, and while in the army he was sentenced to death for violations of military rules, but was reprieved after an intervention by a senior officer who was impressed by his appearance.

As rebel leader

Towards the end the Ming dynasty, drought, famines and epidemics broke out in various parts of China. In the late 1620s, peasants revolted in Shaanxi, resisting attempts by the Ming government to collect grains and taxes. They coalesced into rebel armies called "roving bandits" (liúkòu 流寇) because of their highly mobile nature, and spread into other parts of China.^[8] Zhang deserted from the army, joined the rebel forces in Mizhi County in 1630, and established himself as a rebel leader, styling himself Bada Wang (八大王, Eighth Great King). His mobile forces would conduct raids along the western edge of Shaanxi, plundering swiftly and hiding out in the hills. Later he moved into other provinces, moving from place to place raiding towns and cities. He was defeated at various times by the Ming forces; Zhang would also surrender when it was expedient for him to do so, for example in 1631 and 1638, but would then later regroup and resume the rebellion.^[6][9][10]

In 1635 he joined a larger confederation of bandits that included another rebel leader, Li Zicheng (Li would later capture Beijing and end Ming rule there). They devastated Henan and pushed into Anhui. After they had burnt the Ming ancestral temple at Zhongdu (Fengyang) in Anhui and ravaged the area, the rebel armies broke up and Zhang headed to Hubei.^[11] In 1637, joined by other rebels and with an army now reaching a size of 300,000 men, he again pushed into Anhui, then to Jiangsu, and almost down to Nanjing, auxiliary capital of Ming. But he was immediately defeated there and he retreated back to Hubei. In 1638, he surrendered to Ming supreme commander^{[clarification needed]} Xiong Wencan (熊文燦) and was allowed to serve as a regional Ming commander.^[12] However, he reneged on the agreement in 1639 and rebelled, and later defeated the Ming forces led by the Ming general Zuo Liangyu (左良玉). In 1640, he suffered defeats at the hand of Zuo and had to flee with his few remaining followers into the mountains of Eastern Sichuan.^[11][13] In 1641 he emerged from Sichuan and attacked Xiangyang, capturing and executing the imperial Prince of Xiang there.^[12]

In 1643, he took Macheng in Hubei, and his army swelled to some 57,000 after incorporating the city's rebels.^[14] He then captured the provincial capital of Wuchang, killed the imperial prince there, and proclaimed himself "Xi Wang" (King of the West). Wuchang however was soon recaptured by Ming forces, and for a while Zhang stayed at Changsha where he controlled much of Hunan and part of Jiangxi.^[15]

Conquest of Sichuan

In 1644, Zhang decided to abandon Hunan and led 100,000 of his troops towards Sichuan. His army converged on Chongqing from two directions and surrounded the city. After several days of fighting, his army managed to blast a hole through the city wall and captured the city on 25 July 1644.^[15] He was said to have cut off the hands of the city's defenders and massacred a large number of people.^[9]

The conquest of some other parts of Sichuan was made easier after he promised not to harm the local population if they seized their officials, took possession of the storehouse and surrendered without resistance.^[9] He took Chengdu on 9 September 1644, and met no real opposition in the rest of Sichuan afterwards. He then set up court in Chengdu, which he renamed Xijing (西京, Western Capital), and declared himself king of the Xi dynasty (大西王朝, Great Western dynasty).^[6] In the 10th lunar month of 1644 he declared himself as emperor with the reign title Dashun.^[2]

Rule in Sichuan

The situation of November 1644; the kingdom of Zhang Xianzhong (Xi) was near its greatest extent

In Sichuan, Zhang attempted to set up a civil administration and initially gained considerable support. According to an account by Gabriel de Magalhães, a Portuguese Jesuit who was working in Sichuan with another Jesuit Lodovico Buglio (but both pressed to serve as astronomers to Zhang),^[16] "he began his rule with such liberality, justice and magnificence by which he captivated all hearts that many mandarins, famous both in civic as in military affairs whom fear was keeping concealed, left their hideouts and flew to his side."^[15]

However, resistance to his rule did not cease, and Chongqing was retaken by Ming loyalists in the spring of 1645. Zhang then embarked on a campaign of terror, which was well under way by the middle of 1645, to stamp out the remaining resistance in Sichuan.^[15] In November 1645, according to de Magalhães, Zhang, after hearing that "a huge and powerful army was coming against him", announced that "the people of his kingdom had a secret pact with the enemy and planned an uprising; because of this he was determined to kill any suspected resistors". The Jesuits, who now "understood the evil of this man", reported that while they managed to save a few of their Jesuit brothers who were taken, the rest were killed.^[17] Zhang's policy of terror increased in intensity, especially in 1646 after he had decided to abandon Sichuan. By then, Zhang's government had virtually disintegrated, all but three of his principal officials had either committed suicide or were executed.^[15]

Death

The Manchu Hong Taiji founded the Qing dynasty in 1636 and the Qing army advanced through the Great Wall after the fall of the Ming dynasty to rebels of Li Zicheng in 1644. In 1646 the Qing sent out a force under the leadership of Haoge intending to attack Zhang's domain in Sichuan. In October 1646, Zhang decided to abandon Sichuan, and headed towards his homeland in Shaanxi. However, the Qing army was also approaching from Shaanxi, and in January 1647, Zhang and the Qing forces met in Xichong where Zhang had set up camp, and he was killed in the confrontation.^[18] According to one account, he was betrayed by one of his officers, a native of Sichuan named Liu Chin-chung (Liu Jinzhong) who resented his policy of terror in Sichuan. Zhang was alerted to their presence and decided to confront them with only 8 to 10 men.^[19] Liu pointed Zhang out to the Qing when Zhang rushed out from his tent on learning of the betrayal, and he was then shot and killed by a skilled Manchu archer.^[20][21] The Draft History of Qing has an entirely different account of his death and says he was killed by Oboi during a battle.^[22]

Devastation of Sichuan

The events surrounding Zhang's rule and afterwards devastated Sichuan, where he was said to have "engaged in one of the most hair-raising genocides in imperial history".^[23] Lurid stories of his killings and flayings were given in various accounts. According to Shu Bi (蜀碧), an 18th-century account of the massacre, after every slaughter, the heads or skulls were collected and placed in several big piles, while the hands were placed in other big piles, and the ears and noses in more piles, so that Zhang could keep count of the killings.^[24] In one incident, he is said to have organized an imperial examination ostensibly to recruit scholars for his administration, only to have all the candidates, who numbered many thousands, killed.^[25] In another, to give thanks for his recovery after an illness, he was said to have cut off the feet of many women. The severed feet were heaped in two piles with those of his favorite concubine, whose feet were unusually small, placed on top. These two piles of feet were then doused in oil and set alight to become what he called "heavenly candles".^[20]

He was reported to have ordered further massacres before he abandoned Chengdu in advance of the Qing armies.^[18] The massacres, a subsequent famine and epidemic, attacks by tigers, as well as people fleeing from the turmoil and the Qing armies, resulted in a large-scale depopulation of Sichuan. The worst affected areas are believed to be Chengdu and its surrounding counties (mainly in Chengdu Plain), and places on the path of Zhang's retreat from Chengdu to Shaanxi.^[26]

Seven Kill Stele

A popular account of his life has it that he erected in Chengdu a stele, which came to be known as the Seven Kill Stele (七殺碑), with the following inscription:^[27][28][29]

天生萬物以養人 人無一善以報天 殺殺殺殺殺殺殺

Heaven brings forth innumerable things to nurture man. Man has nothing good with which to recompense Heaven. Kill. Kill. Kill. Kill. Kill. Kill. Kill.

There are, however, considerable doubts that this account is accurate. In 1934, a stele thought to be this very one was found by a missionary – its reverse side contains an added inscription by a Southern Ming general commemorating Zhang's numerous victims whose bones he had collected and buried in 1646.^[30][31] While the first two lines of the poem on this stele are similar, the line with the seven kills is absent in this stele. Instead the actual line reads: "The spirits and gods are knowing, so reflect on this and examine yourselves" (鬼神明明，自思自量).^[30][32] Many therefore considered the story to be a distortion from the Qing era.^[5][27][33]

Deaths

The actual number of people killed by Zhang is not known and is disputed. Official Ming dynasty history Ming Shi recorded a figure of 600 million deaths due to Zhang's activities, an obvious exaggeration, since the total population of China at that time was less than 150 million, perhaps much lower.^[34][35] According to an assessment by a modern historian, "the death toll is reputed to have been enormous, possibly one million out of a total provincial population of three million, before he was eventually killed by the Manchus."^[36] The combination of deaths from the massacres and other causes as well as flight of people from the province resulted in a sharp drop in the population of Sichuan. The population has been estimated to have dropped by as much as 75%, with fewer than a million people left in Sichuan, most of whom were clustered in the peripheral areas.^[37] The last Ming census figure for Sichuan in 1578 (more than 60 years before Zhang entered Sichuan) gave a population of 3,102,073. However, by 1661, only 16,096 adult males were registered in Sichuan, and Chengdu was said to have become a virtual ghost town frequented by tigers.^[38] A later figure for Sichuan was from the 1720s, which is over 70 years after Zhang's death and long after the resettlement of Sichuan had begun, and it recorded 634,802 households (which one estimate calculated to be around 2.5 million individuals).^[15]

Many, while acknowledging the massacres committed, do not believe that Zhang was responsible for the greater part of the population collapse in Sichuan, and thought that the greatest loss happened after his death due to the continuing turmoil, famine and diseases.^[15][18] Some argued that while a great many died, Sichuan did not become virtually depopulated as recorded.^[15] Some modern Chinese historians such as Hu Zhaoxi considered him a proto-revolutionary,^[20] maintaining that accounts of the massacres were exaggerated, and many of the deaths were caused by others including the Qing, Ming and rebel forces, that his victims were Ming nobles, rich landlords, and other "counter-revolutionary" elements, and that his heinous reputation was the result of "Qing slanders" and "reactionary propaganda".^[5][39][40]

Aftermath

Before he had abandoned Sichuan, Zhang divided his forces into four divisions, each led by one of his four generals (Li Dingguo, Sun Kewang, Liu Wenxiu, Ai Nengqi). These remnants of his army, as well as Ming loyalists, held out in Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guizhou after Zhang's death, and most of Sichuan did not come under control of the Qing until a dozen years or so later, and fighting only finally ended in eastern Sichuan in 1664.^[18]

Deification

It is said that when Zhang Xianzhong led the army through Zitong, he was entrusted by Wenchang Wang not to kill the people in the dream, so Zhang regarded the residents of Zitong as brothers of the same clan, and the residents of Zitong were not massacred. Modern Chinese social science researcher Yang Peide believed the Zhang's behavior is a political stunt. For thanks to Zhang's grace of not killing, the residents of Zitong established his statue in the Wenchang Temple of Zitong. In 1742, An Hongde, the head of Mianzhu County, directived to destroy the statue, but it was then rebuilt. In 1987, the local government erected a monument for the statue.^[41]

Resettlement of Sichuan

In order to fill up the depopulated regions of Sichuan, a massive resettlement program was initiated during the Qing dynasty, starting around 1670 or 1671 and lasting more than two centuries. Millions of people from Hubei, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangdong, Shaanxi and other provinces were resettled in Sichuan.^[38][42] Some of the early immigrants were those who returned after fleeing Sichuan (including the ancestors of Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping), but some were also coerced.^[43] A large number of the migrants came from Huguang (now Hubei/Hunan), and the migration was therefore described by 19th century scholar Wei Yuan as "Huguang filling Sichuan [zh]". By the 1720s, 70–80% of the population of Sichuan was reportedly non-native, and as much as 85% a century later.^[37][44]

Modern references

In 2021, after several consecutive random killings in China, Zhang Xianzhong became popular as a political symbol and Internet meme on the Chinese Internet, used to refer to suicidal attackers who were desperate for society and implied an expectation of "accelerationism".^[45][46] Minetoshi Yasuda from Shūkan Bunshun found the term is popular among Chinese anti-establishment otaku trolls. He speculated that the criminal motive of the perpetrator of the 2024 Shenzhen stabbing probably is the "Xianzhong".^[47] In the wake of the killings, the term Xianzhongxue, translating as "Xianzhong-ology", became an internet buzzword.^[48]

Notes

1. Alleged imprint of Zhang Xianzhong's treasure seal as Xi Wang (西王之宝, Xī Wáng Zhībǎo; "Seal of the King of the West")^[1]

References

1. Huo Hongwei. "中国国家博物馆藏西王赏功钱考" (PDF) (in Chinese). China Academic Journal Electronic Publishing House.
2. Cheng Gu (2019). "Chapter 6". The Hidden Land: The Garrison System And the Ming Dynasty (illustrated ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1000711004.
3. "Skeletons of massacre victims uncovered at construction site". Shanghai Star. 11 April 2002. Archived from the original on 22 April 2006.
4. ""张献忠屠四川"非造假 成都曾挖出万人枯骨坑 ("Zhang Xianzhong's massacre of Sichuan" not fabricated, ten thousand human bones in pit excavated in Chengdu.)" (in Chinese). sc.people.com.cn. 8 April 2010. Archived from the original on 15 July 2012.
5. Hu Zhaoxi (1979). 张献忠屠蜀考辩 [A Study of Zhang Xianzhong's Sichuan Massacre].
6. Hummel, Arthur W. Sr., ed. (1943). "Chang Hsien-chung" . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office.
7. Ming shi Original text: 献忠黄面长身虎颔，人号黄虎。
8. Cho-Yun Hsu (2006). Rivers in Time: A Cultural History of China. Columbia University Press. p. 383. ISBN 978-0-231-15921-0.
9. Kim Hunter Gordon, Jesse Watson (2011). Chongqing & The Three Gorges. Kim Hunter Gordon. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-7-5022-5215-1.
10. Roger Des Forges (2003). Cultural Centrality and Political Change in Chinese History: Northeast Henan in the Fall of the Ming. Stanford University Press. p. 59. ISBN 0804740445.
11. Marvin C. Whiting (2002). Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 Bc – 1912 Ad. Writers Club Press. pp. 457–462. ISBN 0-595-22134-3.
12. William Atwell (1988). Frederick W. Mote, Denis Twitchett (ed.). The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1. pp. 630–631. ISBN 978-0521243322.
13. Peter Lorge (2005). War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900–1795. Routledge. p. 145. ISBN 0-415-31690-1.
14. Rowe, William T. (2006). Crimson Rain: Seven Centuries of Violence in a Chinese County. Stanford University Press. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-0804754965.
15. James B. Parsons (May 1957). "The Culmination of a Chinese Peasant Rebellion: Chang Hsien-chung in Szechwan, 1644–46". The Journal of Asian Studies. 16 (3). Association for Asian Studies: 387–400. doi:10.2307/2941233. JSTOR 2941233. S2CID 162377335.
16. Liam Matthew Brokey (2007). Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724. Harvard University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-674-03036-7.
17. "Biography of Fernandes Cai, António (1620–1670)". The Ricci Roundtable. Archived from the original on 8 September 2006.
18. Yingcong Dai (2009). The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing. University of Washington Press. pp. 16–22. ISBN 978-0-295-98952-5.
19. Swope, Kenneth (2018). On the Trail of the Yellow Tiger: War, Trauma, and Social Dislocation in Southwest China During the Ming-Qing Transition (illustrated ed.). U of Nebraska Press. pp. 133–134. ISBN 978-0803249950.
20. Kim Hunter Gordon, Jesse Watson (2011). Chongqing & The Three Gorges. Kim Hunter Gordon. p. 61. ISBN 978-7-5022-5215-1.
21. Parsons 1957, p. 399.
22. Draft History of Qing, Volume 4, "Annals of Shunzhi 1": "On the jisi day of the eleventh month of the third year of Shunzhi [2 January 1647], Hooge's army reached the southern regions [of China]. At that time, Zhang Xianzhong [held] a line of fortifications in Xichong. Oboi and others advanced together to attack and they routed [the rebels], beheading [Zhang] Xianzhong on the battlefield. They then divided their forces to attack the remaining bandits, overrunning more than 130 [enemy] camps/battalions. Sichuan was thus pacified." (清史稿·本紀四·世祖本紀一) "順治三年十一月己巳，豪格師至南部，時張獻忠列寨西充，鰲拜等兼程進擊，大破之，斬獻忠於陣，復分兵擊餘賊，破一百三十餘營，四川平。
23. Rowe, William T. (2006). Crimson Rain: Seven Centuries of Violence in a Chinese County. Stanford University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0804754965.
24. Shu Bi Original text: 賊每屠一方，標記所殺人數，儲竹園中。人頭幾大堆，人手掌幾大堆，人耳鼻幾大堆。所過處皆有記。
25. Yuri Pines (2012). The Everlasting Empire: The Political Culture of Ancient China and Its Imperial Legacy. Princeton University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0691134956.
26. Yingcong Dai (2009). The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing. University of Washington Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0-295-98952-5.
27. 降大任 (2010). 中國現代化的癥結 (The Problems of Modernization in China. 秀威出版. p. 44. ISBN 9789862216378.
28. Vincent Yu-Chung Shih, Yu-chung Shih (1967). The Taiping Ideology: Its Sources, Interpretations, and Influences. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-95243-1.
29. R.J. Rummel (1994). "Chapter 3: Pre-20th Century Genocide". Death by Government. Transaction Publisher. ISBN 1-56000-927-6.
30. Donnithorne, V. H. (1938). "Chang Hsien-Chong and the Dark Age" (PDF). The West China Missionary News. XL (7–8): 229–243.
31. Yang, S. C. (1933–1934). "The Revolution in Szechwan, 1911–1912". Journal of the West China Border Research Society. Printed by the United Church of Canada Mission Press. Chengtu: West China Border Research Society: 88.
32. The inscription reads: 天有萬物與人，人無一物與天。 鬼神明明，自思自量。 On its reverse are inscriptions by Yang Zhan (楊展) titled Ten-thousand-men Tomb (萬人墳), and described his distress at the sight of the remains of the massacre, so he had them collected and buried.
33. "The Manchu Qing Dynasty - Part I -- Political, Social, Cultural, Historical Analysis Of China". www.imperialchina.org.
34. Ming shi Original text: 将卒以杀人多少叙功次，共杀男女六万万有奇。
35. Dillon, Michael (1998). China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary. Routledge. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-0700704392.
36. Dillon, Michael (1998). China: A Cultural and Historical Dictionary. Routledge. p. 379. ISBN 978-0700704392. from J.B. Parsons, The Peasant Rebellions of the Late Ming Dynasty (University of Arizona Press). 1970
37. William T. Rove (2002). Willard J. Peterson (ed.). The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 9: The Ch'ing Dynasty, Part 1: To 1800. pp. 481–482. ISBN 0-521-24334-3.
38. Yingcong Dai (2009). The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing. University of Washington Press. pp. 22–27. ISBN 978-0-295-98952-5.
39. R. V. Des Forges (February 1982). "Book Reviews—Zhongguo nongmin zhanzheng shi yanjiu [Research on the history of Chinese peasant wars]". The Journal of Asian Studies. 41 (2). Association for Asian Studies: 350–352. doi:10.2307/2054975. JSTOR 2054975. In a major research essay, Hu Zhaoxi disputes the common view that Zhang Xianzhong depopulated Sichuan. Many accounts exaggerated the number killed, created a nonexistent massacre, doctored the famous stele of "seven kills", ignored that most of Zhang's victims were Ming nobles, rich landlords, and other "counter-revolutionary" elements, and obscured that Zhang was in the province only three years while South Ming, Qing, and Wu Sangui's armies ravaged the area for twenty-four.
40. Robert Eric Entenmann (1982). Migration and settlement in Sichuan, 1644–1796. Harvard University. p. 35.
41. Yang Peide. "關於梓潼神廟內的張獻忠塑像" (PDF) (in Traditional Chinese). 弘道. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2021. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
42. Bingdi He (1959). Studies on the Population of China, 1368–1953, Volume 4. Harvard University Press. pp. 139–141. ISBN 0-674-85245-1.
43. Yingcong Dai (2009). The Sichuan Frontier and Tibet: Imperial Strategy in the Early Qing. University of Washington Press. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0-295-98952-5.
44. William T. Rowe (2009). China's Last Empire: The Great Qing. Harvard University Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-674-03612-3.
45. "多起隨機傷人事件後，網絡迷因「張獻忠」為何被全網封殺？". Initium Media. 22 June 2021. Archived from the original on 29 June 2021. Retrieved 22 June 2021.
46. Hu Bugui (16 July 2021). "从"加速"、"躺平"到"献忠学"：在审查系统下一个个消失的政治黑话". WHYNOT (in Chinese (China)). Archived from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved 11 November 2021.
47. Minetoshi Yasuda (22 October 2024). "《深圳児童殺害事件の背景》中国版"無敵の人"の無差別犯罪「献忠」続発の深い闇". Shūkan Bunshun (in Japanese).
48. Hawkins, Amy (22 November 2024). "China reels from spate of suspected 'revenge against society' attacks". The Guardian. Retrieved 2 December 2024.

Further reading

• Liu Xianting 劉獻廷, Guangyang zaji 廣陽雜記 (in Chinese)
• Mingshi 明史 (History of Ming) (in Chinese)
• Peng Zunsi 彭遵泗 (fl. 18th century), Shu Bi 蜀碧 (in Chinese)
• He, Rui 何锐 (2002), Zhang Xianzhong jiao Sichuan shilu 张献忠剿四川实录 [Records of Zhang Xianzhong's Destruction of Sichuan], Chengdu: Ba-Shu Shushe 巴蜀书社, ISBN 978-7-80659-327-1. (in Chinese)
• Zürcher, Erik (2002), "In the Yellow Tiger's Den: Buglio and Magalhães at the Court of Zhang Xianzhong, 1644–1647", Monumenta Serica, 25: 355–72, doi:10.1080/02549948.2002.11731381, JSTOR 40727504, S2CID 192894359.  – via JSTOR (subscription required)
• Hummel, Arthur W. Sr., ed. (1943). "Chang Hsien-chung" . Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period. United States Government Printing Office.

External links

• "Zhang Xianzhong". Britannica Online.