Volcanic lightning

Volcanic lightning
Volcanic lightning during the January 2020 eruption of Taal Volcano
EffectLightning
Part of a series on
Weather
Temperate and polar seasons
Tropical seasons
Storms
Precipitation
Topics
Glossaries
icon Weather portal

Volcanic lightning is an electrical discharge caused by a volcanic eruption rather than from an ordinary thunderstorm. Volcanic lightning arises from colliding, fragmenting particles of volcanic ash (and sometimes ice),[1][2] which generate static electricity within the volcanic plume,[3] leading to the name dirty thunderstorm.[4][5] Moist convection currents and ice formation also drive the eruption plume dynamics[6][7] and can trigger volcanic lightning.[8][9] Unlike ordinary thunderstorms, volcanic lightning can also occur when there are no ice crystals in the ash cloud.[10][11]

The earliest recorded observations of volcanic lightning[12] are from Pliny the Younger, describing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, "There was a most intense darkness rendered more appalling by the fitful gleam of torches at intervals obscured by the transient blaze of lightning."[13] The first studies of volcanic lightning were also conducted at Mount Vesuvius by Luigi Palmieri[14] who observed the eruptions of 1858, 1861, 1868, and 1872 from the Vesuvius Observatory. These eruptions often included lightning activity.[13]

Instances have also been reported above Alaska's Mount Augustine volcano,[15] Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull and Grimsvotn,[16] Mount Etna in Sicily, Italy,[17] Taal Volcano in the Philippines,[18] Mount Ruang in Indonesia,[19] and Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala.[20]

Charging mechanisms

Ice charging

1994 eruption of Mount Rinjani

Ice charging is thought to play an important role in certain types of eruption plumes—particularly those rising above the freezing level or involving magma-water interaction.[21] Ordinary thunderstorms produce lightning through ice charging[22] as water clouds become electrified from colliding ice crystals and other hydrometeors.[23] Volcanic plumes can also carry abundant water.[24] This water is sourced from the magma,[25] vaporized from surrounding sources such as lakes and glaciers,[26] and entrained from ambient air as the plume rises through the atmosphere.[6] One study suggested that the water content of volcanic plumes can be greater than that of thunderstorms.[27] The water is initially transported as a hot vapor, which condenses to liquid in the rising column and ultimately freezes to ice if the plume cools well below freezing.[28] Some eruptions even produce volcanic hail.[7][29] Support for the ice-charging hypothesis includes the observation that lightning activity greatly increases once volcanic plumes rise above the freezing level,[30][21] and evidence that ice crystals in the anvil top of the volcanic cloud are effective charge-carriers.[9]

Frictional charging

Triboelectric (frictional) charging within the plume of a volcano during eruption is thought to be a major electrical charging mechanism. Electrical charges are generated when rock fragments, ash, and ice particles in a volcanic plume collide and produce static charges, similar to the way that ice particles collide in regular thunderstorms.[12] The convective activity causing the plume to rise then separates the different charge regions, ultimately causing electrical breakdown.

Fractoemission

Fractoemission is the generation of charge through break-up of rock particles. It may be a significant source of charge near the erupting vent.[31]

Radioactive charging

Although it is thought to have a small effect on the overall charging of volcanic plumes, naturally occurring radioisotopes within ejected rock particles may nevertheless influence particle charging.[32] In a study performed on ash particles from the Eyjafjallajökull and Grímsvötn eruptions, scientists found that both samples possessed a natural radioactivity above the background level, but that radioisotopes were an unlikely source of self-charging in the Eyjafjallajökull plume.[33] However, there was the potential for greater charging near the vent where the particle size is larger.[32] Research continues, and the electrification via radioisotopes, such as radon, may in some instances be significant and at various magnitudes a somewhat common mechanism.[34]

Plume height

The height of the ash plume appears to be linked with the mechanism which generates the lightning. In taller ash plumes (7–12 km) large concentrations of water vapor may contribute to lightning activity, while smaller ash plumes (1–4 km) appear to gain more of their electric charge from fragmentation of rocks near the vent of the volcano (fractoemission).[30] The atmospheric temperature also plays a role in the formation of lightning. Colder ambient temperatures promote freezing and ice charging inside the plume, thus leading to more electrical activity.[35][33]

Lightning-induced volcanic spherules

Experimental studies and investigation of volcanic deposits have shown that volcanic lighting creates a by-product known as "lightning-induced volcanic spherules" (LIVS).[36][37] These tiny glass spherules form during high-temperatures processes such as cloud-to-ground lightning strikes, analogous to fulgurites.[36] The temperature of a bolt of lightning can reach 30,000 °C. When this bolt contacts ash particles within the plume it may do one of two things: (1) completely vaporize the ash particles,[38] or (2) cause them to melt and then quickly solidify as they cool, forming orb shapes.[37] The presence of lightning-induced volcanic spherules may provide geological evidence for volcanic lightning when the lightning itself was not observed directly.[36]

References

  1. ^ Fritz, Angela (2016). "Scientists think they've solved the mystery of how volcanic lightning forms". The Washington Post.
  2. ^ Mulvaney, Kieran (2016). "Mystery of Volcano Lightning Explained". Seeker.
  3. ^ Lipuma, Lauren (2016). "New studies uncover mysterious processes that generate volcanic lightning". American Geophysical Union GeoSpace Blog.
  4. ^ Hoblitt, Richard P. (2000). "Was the 18 May 1980 lateral blast at Mt St Helens the product of two explosions?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 358 (1770): 1639–1661. Bibcode:2000RSPTA.358.1639H. doi:10.1098/rsta.2000.0608. S2CID 92549298.
  5. ^ Bennett, A J; Odams, P; Edwards, D; Arason, Þ (2010-10-01). "Monitoring of lightning from the April–May 2010 Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption using a very low frequency lightning location network". Environmental Research Letters. 5 (4): 044013. Bibcode:2010ERL.....5d4013B. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/5/4/044013. ISSN 1748-9326.
  6. ^ a b Woods, Andrew W. (1993). "Moist convection and the injection of volcanic ash into the atmosphere". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 98 (B10): 17627–17636. Bibcode:1993JGR....9817627W. doi:10.1029/93JB00718.
  7. ^ a b Van Eaton, Alexa R.; Mastin, Larry G.; Herzog, Michael; Schwaiger, Hans F.; Schneider, David J.; Wallace, Kristi L.; Clarke, Amanda B. (2015-08-03). "Hail formation triggers rapid ash aggregation in volcanic plumes". Nature Communications. 6 (1): 7860. Bibcode:2015NatCo...6.7860V. doi:10.1038/ncomms8860. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 4532834. PMID 26235052.
  8. ^ Williams, Earl R.; McNutt, Stephen R. (2005). "Total water contents in volcanic eruption clouds and implications for electrification and lightning" (PDF). Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Volcanic Ash and Aviation Safety: 67–71.
  9. ^ a b Van Eaton, Alexa R.; Amigo, Álvaro; Bertin, Daniel; Mastin, Larry G.; Giacosa, Raúl E.; González, Jerónimo; Valderrama, Oscar; Fontijn, Karen; Behnke, Sonja A. (2016-04-12). "Volcanic lightning and plume behavior reveal evolving hazards during the April 2015 eruption of Calbuco volcano, Chile". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (7): 3563–3571. Bibcode:2016GeoRL..43.3563V. doi:10.1002/2016gl068076. ISSN 0094-8276.
  10. ^ Cimarelli, C.; Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia, M.A.; Kueppers, U.; Scheu, B.; Dingwell, D.B. (2014). "Experimental generation of volcanic lightning". Geology. 42 (1): 79–82. Bibcode:2014Geo....42...79C. doi:10.1130/g34802.1. ISSN 1943-2682.
  11. ^ Cimarelli, C.; Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia, M. A.; Aizawa, K.; Yokoo, A.; Díaz-Marina, A.; Iguchi, M.; Dingwell, D. B. (2016-05-06). "Multiparametric observation of volcanic lightning: Sakurajima Volcano, Japan". Geophysical Research Letters. 43 (9): 4221–4228. Bibcode:2016GeoRL..43.4221C. doi:10.1002/2015gl067445. ISSN 0094-8276.
  12. ^ a b Mather, T. A.; Harrison, R. G. (July 2006). "Electrification of volcanic plumes". Surveys in Geophysics. 27 (4): 387–432. Bibcode:2006SGeo...27..387M. doi:10.1007/s10712-006-9007-2. ISSN 0169-3298. S2CID 53140261.
  13. ^ a b "History of Volcanic Lightning | Volcano World | Oregon State University". volcano.oregonstate.edu. 27 May 2010. Retrieved 2018-05-09.
  14. ^ Perrone, Alessio. "A Defiant Volcanologist Survived 5 Eruptions while Living on Mount Vesuvius". Scientific American. Springer Nature. Retrieved 19 April 2024.
  15. ^ Handwerk, Brian (February 22, 2007). "Volcanic Lightning Sparked by "Dirty Thunderstorms"". National Geographic. Archived from the original on February 25, 2007. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
  16. ^ "Iceland Volcano Pictures: Lightning Adds Flash to Ash". National Geographic. April 19, 2010. Archived from the original on April 21, 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-20.
  17. ^ Sample, Ian (3 December 2015). "Sky lights up over Sicily as Mount Etna's Voragine crater erupts". The Guardian. Retrieved 2015-12-03.
  18. ^ Borbon, Christian. "Philippines: Volcano near Manila spews giant ash column". Gulf News. Retrieved 12 January 2020.
  19. ^ "Gunung Ruang Kembali Erupsi, Warga Diimbau Mengungsi". CNN Indonesia. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
  20. ^ Kuta, Sarah (15 May 2024). "Lightning Dazzles Onlookers Watching the Eruption of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala". Smithsonian Magazine.
  21. ^ a b Arason, Pordur; Bennett, Alec J.; Burgin, Laura E. (2011). "Charge mechanism of volcanic lightning revealed during the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull". Journal of Geophysical Research. 116 (B12): B00C03. Bibcode:2011JGRB..116.0C03A. doi:10.1029/2011jb008651. ISSN 0148-0227.
  22. ^ Saunders, C.P.R. (1993). "A Review of Thunderstorm Electrification Processes". Journal of Applied Meteorology. 32 (4): 642–65. Bibcode:1993JApMe..32..642S. doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1993)032<0642:AROTEP>2.0.CO;2.
  23. ^ Deierling, Wiebke; Petersen, Walter A.; Latham, John; Ellis, Scott; Christian, Hugh J. (2008-08-15). "The relationship between lightning activity and ice fluxes in thunderstorms". Journal of Geophysical Research. 113 (D15): D15210. Bibcode:2008JGRD..11315210D. doi:10.1029/2007jd009700. ISSN 0148-0227.
  24. ^ Glaze, Lori S.; Baloga, Stephen M.; Wilson, Lionel (1997-03-01). "Transport of atmospheric water vapor by volcanic eruption columns". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 102 (D5): 6099–6108. Bibcode:1997JGR...102.6099G. doi:10.1029/96jd03125. ISSN 0148-0227.
  25. ^ Cashman, Katharine V.; Scheu, Bettina (2015), "Magmatic Fragmentation", The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, Elsevier, pp. 459–471, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385938-9.00025-0, ISBN 9780123859389
  26. ^ Houghton, Bruce; White, James D.L.; Van Eaton, Alexa R. (2015), "Phreatomagmatic and Related Eruption Styles", The Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, Elsevier, pp. 537–552, doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-385938-9.00030-4, ISBN 9780123859389
  27. ^ McNutt, Stephen R.; Williams, Earle R. (2010-08-05). "Volcanic lightning: global observations and constraints on source mechanisms". Bulletin of Volcanology. 72 (10): 1153–1167. Bibcode:2010BVol...72.1153M. doi:10.1007/s00445-010-0393-4. ISSN 0258-8900. S2CID 59522391 – via Research Gate.
  28. ^ Durant, A. J.; Shaw, R. A.; Rose, W. I.; Mi, Y.; Ernst, G. G. J. (2008-05-15). "Ice nucleation and overseeding of ice in volcanic clouds". Journal of Geophysical Research. 113 (D9): D09206. Bibcode:2008JGRD..113.9206D. doi:10.1029/2007jd009064. ISSN 0148-0227.
  29. ^ Arason, Þórdur; Þorláksdóttir, S.B.; et al. (2013). "Properties of ash-infused hail during the Grímsvötn 2011 eruption and implications for radar detection of volcanic columns" (PDF). Geophysical Research Abstracts. 15: EGU2013–EGU4797. Bibcode:2013EGUGA..15.4797A.
  30. ^ a b McNutt, S. R. (June 2, 2008). "Volcanic lightning: global observations and constraints on source mechanisms". Bulletin of Volcanology. 72 (10): 1153–1167. Bibcode:2010BVol...72.1153M. doi:10.1007/s00445-010-0393-4. S2CID 59522391 – via Research Gate.[clarification needed]
  31. ^ James, M. R.; Lane, S. J.; Gilbert, J. S. (2000). "Volcanic plume electrification: Experimental investigation of a fracture-charging mechanism". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 105 (B7): 16641–16649. Bibcode:2000JGR...10516641J. doi:10.1029/2000JB900068. ISSN 2156-2202.
  32. ^ a b Alpin, Karen; et al. (2014). "Electronic Charging of Volcanic Ash" (PDF). Electrostatics.org. Retrieved May 8, 2018.
  33. ^ a b Aplin, K.L.; Bennett, A.J.; Harrison, R.G.; Houghton, I.M.P. (2016), "Electrostatics and In Situ Sampling of Volcanic Plumes", Volcanic Ash, Elsevier, pp. 99–113, doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-100405-0.00010-0, ISBN 9780081004050
  34. ^ Nicoll, Keri; M. Airey; C. Cimarelli; A. Bennett; G. Harrison; D. Gaudin; K. Aplin; K. L. Koh; M. Knuever; G. Marlton (2019). "First In Situ Observations of Gaseous Volcanic Plume Electrification" (PDF). Geophys. Res. Lett. 46 (6): 3532–3539. Bibcode:2019GeoRL..46.3532N. doi:10.1029/2019GL082211.
  35. ^ Bennett, A. J.; Odams, P.; Edwards, D.; Arason, Þ. (2010). "Monitoring of lightning from the April–May 2010 Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption using a very low frequency lightning location network". Environmental Research Letters. 5 (4): 044013. Bibcode:2010ERL.....5d4013B. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/5/4/044013.
  36. ^ a b c Genareau, Kimberly; Wardman, John B.; Wilson, Thomas M.; McNutt, Stephen R.; Izbekov, Pavel (2015). "Lightning-induced volcanic spherules". Geology. 43 (4): 319–322. Bibcode:2015Geo....43..319G. doi:10.1130/G36255.1. ISSN 1943-2682.
  37. ^ a b Perkins, Sid (March 4, 2015). "Flash glass: Lightning inside volcanic ash plumes create glassy spherules". American Association for the Advancement of Science.
  38. ^ Genareau, K.; Gharghabi, P.; Gafford, J.; Mazzola, M. (2017). "The Elusive Evidence of Volcanic Lightning". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 15508. Bibcode:2017NatSR...715508G. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-15643-8. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 5686202. PMID 29138444.

Read other articles:

Banyu Biru

Untuk kecamatan di Semarang, lihat Banyubiru, Semarang. Banyu BiruSutradara Teddy Soeriaatmadja Produser Shanty Harmayn Ditulis oleh Rayya Makarim Prima Rusdi SkenarioRayya MakarimPrima RusdiCeritaTeddy SoeriaatmadjaRayya MakarimPrima RusdiPemeranTora SudiroDian SastrowardoyoSlamet RahardjoDidi PetetOscar LawalataLadya CherylButet KertaradjasaKarin AbdullahIrshadi BagasIndra BirowoBerliana FebryantiRima MelatiKukuh AdirizkyYadi TimoDistributorSalto FilmsM&M EntertainmentTanggal rilis10 Ma...

 

Distorsi (musik)

Distorsi atau pengerot adalah perangkat elektronik yang mengubah bagaimana sebuah alat musik atau sumber audio lainnya (efek) yang digunakan pada gitar listrik, bas listrik, dan instrumen yang diamplifikasi lainnya seperti Hammond organ, synthesizer, harmonika, dan bahkan vokal yang menggunakan clipping elektronik sinyal. Gitar Volskwagen First Act, yang dilengkapi dengan efek tertanam (built-in effect) Jenis yang paling halus adalah distorsi yang menambahkan rasa ”hangat” pada nada asli,...

 

Britania Raya pada Olimpiade

Britania Raya padaOlimpiadeBendera Britania RayaKode IOCGBRKONAsosiasi Olimpiade Britania RayaMedaliPeringkat ke-4 286 316 315 Total 917 Penampilan Musim Panas18961900190419081912192019241928193219361948195219561960196419681972197619801984198819921996200020042008201220162020Penampilan Musim Dingin192419281932193619481952195619601964196819721976198019841988199219941998200220062010201420182022Penampilan terkait lainnyaPermainan Interkala 1906  Irlandia (1924–sekarang) Para atlet dari Bri...

خليج صغير

خليج صغيرمعلومات عامةصنف فرعي من shoreline indentation (en) مساحة ماء تصنيف للتصنيفات التي تحمل هذا الاسم Catégorie:Catégorie d'une baie (fr) تعديل - تعديل مصدري - تعديل ويكي بياناتخليج نيويورك العلوي و نهر هدسون في المقدمة؛ النهر الشرقي على اليسار، فوق المركز مباشرة. الخليج الصغير أو الجَون[1][...

 

Sainte-Croix-sur-Orne

Coordenadas: 48° 47' N 0° 17' O Sainte-Croix-sur-Orne   Comuna francesa    Localização Sainte-Croix-sur-OrneLocalização de Sainte-Croix-sur-Orne na França Coordenadas 48° 47' N 0° 17' O País  França Região Normandia Departamento Orne Características geográficas Área total 3,81 km² População total (2010) [1] 81 hab. Densidade 21,3 hab./km² Código Postal 61210 Código INSEE 61378 Sainte-Croix-sur-Orne foi uma comuna fra...

 

National Register of Historic Places listings in Uinta County, Wyoming

Location of Uinta County in Wyoming This is a list of the National Register of Historic Places listings in Uinta County, Wyoming. This is intended to be a complete list of the properties and districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Uinta County, Wyoming, United States. The locations of National Register properties and districts for which the latitude and longitude coordinates are included below, may be seen in a map.[1] There are 14 properties and districts listed on t...

Ahda Imran

Ahda ImranLahir10 Agustus 1966 (umur 57)Baruah Gunuang, Sumatera BaratKebangsaanIndonesiaPekerjaanPenyair dan Penulis Naskah DramaDikenal atasSastrawan dan penyair Ahda Imran (lahir 10 Agustus 1966[1][2]) adalah seorang penyair dan esais Indonesia. Ia besar dan berkarya di Cimahi. Puisi dan karyanya sering dimuat di banyak koran (termasuk Kompas edisi cetak) serta berbagai antologi.[3] Selain sebagai penyair dan esais, Ahda juga pernah menulis beberapa naskah dram...

 

Mark 37 (торпеда)

Mark 37 Основная информация Государство  США На вооружении 1957-1987[1] Современный статус снята с вооружения Параметры Масса 649 кг (Mod 0)753 кг (Mod 1)[1] Длина 3,43 м (Mod 0)4,09 м (Mod 1)[1] Диаметр 483 мм[1] Боевая часть 150 кг HBX-3, контактный взрыватель Mk 19[2] Технические данные ...

 

Palestine–Russia relations

Bilateral relationsRussian–Palestinian relations Palestine Russia The bilateral relations between the State of Palestine and Russia (and before 1991, the Soviet Union) have a complex history, deeply interwoven with Russian and Soviet relations with the Israeli enterprise, Palestinian nationalism, and Third World national liberation movements. Between 1956 and 1990, Soviet-Palestinian relations were part of the then ongoing Soviet-American confrontation. History The emir of Palestine, Zahir ...

Thờ ơ

Các cung bậc củaCảm xúc Ở động vật Trí tuệ xúc cảm Tâm trạng Các cảm xúc Bất an Buồn Chán Cô đơn Đam mê Đau khổ Đồng cảm Ganh tị Ghen tuông Ghê tởm Hạnh phúc Hối hận Hối tiếc Hy vọng Khinh thường Khó chịu Khoái lạc Lãnh đạm Lo âu Lo lắng Ngạc nhiên Nghi ngờ Ngượng ngùng Nhút nhát Oán giận Hài lòng Hưng phấn Sợ hãi Thất bại Thất vọng Thỏa mãn Thù ghét Tin tưởng Tình cảm Tò...

 

Jejuri railway station

Railway Station in Maharashtra, India This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Jejuri railway station – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR ...

 

Manchukuo Imperial Army

1932–1945 ground force Manchukuo Imperial Army滿洲國軍Mǎnzhōuguó jūnWar flag of ManchukuoActive1932–1945Country ManchukuoAllegiance Emperor of Manchukuo (de jure) Empire of Japan (de facto)TypeArmySize111,000 (1933)170,000–220,000 (1945)EngagementsSecond Sino-Japanese War Pacification of Manchukuo Operation Nekka Battle of Rehe Soviet-Japanese Border Wars Battle of Lake Khasan Battle of Khalkhin Gol World War II Soviet-Japanese War Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operat...

Captain Cook Cruises (Australia)

Not to be confused with Captain Cook Cruises (Western Australia). Captain Cook CruisesFounded26 January 1970FounderTrevor HaworthHeadquartersDarling Harbour, Sydney, AustraliaArea servedSydney HarbourMurray RiverSwan RiverServicesRestaurant, river/harbour cruise & ferry operatorParentSeaLink Travel GroupWebsitewww.captaincook.com.au Captain Cook Cruises is an Australian cruise operator. As of January 2018, the company operated 21 vessels on Sydney Harbour, providing a range of Government ...

 

Red Guards (United States)

Maoist organizations in the United States Not to be confused with the Red Guard Party. This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: Red Guards United States – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Red Guards LeaderJared RoarkFounded2015 (2015)Dissolved2019 (as Red Gu...

 

Nhiễm sắc thể số 9

Cặp nhiễm sắc thể 9 trong bộ nhiễm sắc thể người bình thường, đã sắp xếp theo quy ước. Nhiễm sắc thể số 9 (viết tẳt: NST 9) là một trong 23 nhiễm sắc thể ở bộ đơn bội (n) của người, được xếp ở thứ tự số 9 theo quy ước Quốc tế về kiểu nhân. Theo quy ước này, các nhiễm sắc thể được xếp thứ tự từ dài nhất (khoảng 8 μm) đến ngắn nhất (khoảng 1 μm) và cuối cùng là...

L.D.U. Cuenca

Ecuadorian football club This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: L.D.U. Cuenca – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Football clubLiga de CuencaFull nameLiga Deportiva Universitaria de CuencaNickname(s)los chulosFoundedFebruary 6, 1972&...

 

Daftar stasiun televisi di Jawa Timur

Artikel ini membutuhkan rujukan tambahan agar kualitasnya dapat dipastikan. Mohon bantu kami mengembangkan artikel ini dengan cara menambahkan rujukan ke sumber tepercaya. Pernyataan tak bersumber bisa saja dipertentangkan dan dihapus.Cari sumber: Daftar stasiun televisi di Jawa Timur – berita · surat kabar · buku · cendekiawan · JSTOR (September 2021) Penyuntingan Artikel oleh pengguna baru atau anonim untuk saat ini tidak diizinkan.Lihat kebijakan pe...

 

Charmed (season 1)

Season of television series This article is about the first season of the 1998 WB series. For the first season of the 2018 CW series, see Charmed (2018 TV series, season 1). Season of television series CharmedSeason 1DVD coverStarring Shannen Doherty Holly Marie Combs Alyssa Milano T. W. King Dorian Gregory Country of originUnited StatesNo. of episodes22ReleaseOriginal networkThe WBOriginal releaseOctober 7, 1998 (1998-10-07) –May 26, 1999 (1999-05-26)Season chronologyNext...

Raindrop impressions

Geological feature Fossil raindrop impressions on the top of a wave-rippled sandstone from the Horton Bluff Formation (Mississippian), near Avonport, Nova Scotia Raindrop impressions are a geological feature characterized by small crater-like pits with slightly raised edges that are the result of the impact of raindrop impacts on soft sediment surfaces.[1] Sedimentary structures with similar appearance have been found. They can be considered a type of fossil, but their significance an...

 

Vista, Missouri

Village in Missouri, United StatesVista, MissouriVillageCoordinates: 37°59′21″N 93°39′49″W / 37.98917°N 93.66361°W / 37.98917; -93.66361CountryUnited StatesStateMissouriCountySt. ClairArea[1] • Total0.13 sq mi (0.34 km2) • Land0.13 sq mi (0.34 km2) • Water0.00 sq mi (0.00 km2)Elevation[2]853 ft (260 m)Population (2020) • Total36 ...

 

Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!