Qara Khitai

This article is about the Khitan-ruled state. For the Turkic-ruled state, see Kara-Khanid Khanate.

Great Liao 大遼
1124–1218
1160 KHWARAZM SHAHS CUMANS KIMEK-KIPCHAKS SELJUK EMPIRE GHURIDS KIEVAN RUS' GHAZNAVID EMPIRE WESTERN CHALUKYAS PALA EMPIRE KHAMAG MONGOL WESTERN XIA QARA KHITAI QOCHO Naimans ◁ ▷ Territory of the Qara Khitai ("Western Liao") and main neighbouring polities, circa 1160
Qara Khitai c. 1160
Status	Sinicized Khitan-ruled empire in Central Asia
Capital	Balasagun
Common languages	Khitan[1] Middle Chinese (administrative)[2][3] Persian[1] Old Uyghur[1]
Religion	Buddhism[2] Church of the East[2]
Demonym(s)	Kara Khitan
Government	Monarchy
Emperor
• 1124–1143	Emperor Dezong
• 1144–1150	Empress Gantian (regent)
• 1150–1164	Emperor Renzong
• 1164–1178	Empress Dowager Chengtian (regent)
• 1178–1211	Yelü Zhilugu
• 1211–1218	Kuchlug
Historical era	Middle Ages
• Yelü Dashi proclaims himself king	1124
• Fall of Liao dynasty	1125
• Yelü Dashi adopts the titles of Emperor and Gurkhan	1132
• Yelü Dashi captures Balasagun and establishes capital	1134
• Kuchlug usurps power	1211
• Kuchlug executed by Mongols	1218
• All former territories fully absorbed into Mongol Empire	1220
Area
1130 est.[4]	1,000,000 km^2 (390,000 sq mi)
1210 est.[5]	1,500,000 km^2 (580,000 sq mi)
Currency	cash coins
Preceded by Succeeded by Liao dynasty Kara-Khanid Khanate Qocho Kingdom Sogdia Seljuk Empire Mongol Empire Khwarazmian Empire

The Qara Khitai, or Kara Khitai (simplified Chinese: 哈剌契丹; traditional Chinese: 喀喇契丹; pinyin: Kālā Qìdān or Chinese: 黑契丹; pinyin: Hēi Qìdān; lit. 'Black Khitan'),^[6] also known as the Western Liao (Chinese: 西遼; pinyin: Xī Liáo), officially the Great Liao (Chinese: 大遼; pinyin: Dà Liáo),^[7][8] was a dynastic regime based in Central Asia ruled by the Yelü clan of the Khitan people.^[9] Being a rump state of the Khitan-led Liao dynasty, Western Liao was culturally Sinicized to a large extent, especially among the elites consisting of Liao refugees.^[9][10][11]

The dynasty was founded by Yelü Dashi (Emperor Dezong), who led the remnants of the Liao dynasty from Manchuria to Central Asia after fleeing from the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty conquest of northern China. The empire was usurped by the Naimans under Kuchlug in 1211; traditional Chinese, Persian, and Arab sources consider the usurpation to be the end of the dynasty,^[12] even though the empire would not fall until the Mongol conquest in 1218. Some remnants of the Qara Khitai would form the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty in southern Iran.

The territories of the Qara Khitai corresponded to parts of modern-day China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The Anushtegin dynasty, the Karluks, Qocho kingdom, the Kankalis, and the Kara-Khanid Khanate were vassal states of the Qara Khitai at some point in history. Chinese and Muslim historiographical sources, such as the History of Liao, considered the Qara Khitai to be a legitimate Chinese dynasty.^[13][14]

Names

See also: Liao dynasty, Khitan people, Cathay, and Names of China

The Qara Khitai took on trappings of a Chinese state and inherited the dynastic name "Great Liao".^[8][15][16] Hence, Chinese, Korean, Japanese and Vietnamese historians generally refer to the empire as the "Western Liao", emphasizing its continuation from the Liao dynasty.

The name "Qara Khitai", commonly used by Central Asian tribes to refer to the dynasty, is also commonly used in Western scholarly works. The term is often translated as the Black Khitans in Mongolian, but its original meaning is unclear today.^[17] In Modern Mongolian, "Kara-Khitan" is rendered "Хар Хятан" (Khar Khyatan). Since no direct records from the empire survive today, the only surviving historical records about the empire come from foreign sources.

"Black Khitans" (黑契丹) has also been seen used in Chinese. "Qara," which literally means "black," corresponds with the Liao's dynastic color black and its dynastic element water, according to the theory of five elements (wuxing).^[18] The Jurchens referred to the empire as "Dashi" or "Dashi Linya" (after its founder), to reduce any claims the empire may have had to the old territories of the Liao dynasty. Muslim historians initially referred to the state simply as "Khitay" or "Khitai;" they may have adopted this form of "Khitan" via the Uyghurs of Kocho in whose language the final -n or -ń became -y.^[19] Only after the Mongol conquest did the state begin to be referred to in the Muslim world as the "Kara-Khitai" or "Qara-Khitai."^[20] Khitan is the origin of "Cathay", a European name for China.

The Khitans in the 10th century, forebears of the Kara-Khitans.

Chinese portrayal of a "Black Khitan" (黑契丹), i.e. Kara-Khitan man, from Sancai Tuhui.

History

See also: Timeline of the Khitans

Origin

The Qara Khitai empire, also known as the Western Liao dynasty, was the remnant offshoot of the Khitan-led Liao dynasty. From 1114 to 1125, the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty conquered the Liao. In 1122, two groups of Khitans fled westward to escape the Jin invasion. One of these groups was led by Yelü Dashi, who joined the Liao emperor, Tianzuo, at the border of the Western Xia kingdom. Dashi was captured by the Jin in 1123 and forced to lead them to Tianzuo's camp, resulting in the capture of the entire Liao imperial family except for Tianzuo and one of his sons. Dashi later rejoined Tianzuo but the emperor was captured in early 1125 and died at the Jin court in 1128.^[21]

Founding of the Qara Khitai

Khitan tomb mural, Chifeng city, Inner Mongolia.

In 1124, Yelü Dashi fled northwest and established his headquarter at the military garrison of Kedun (Zhenzhou) on the Orkhon River. Dashi secured the allegiance of the garrison forces numbering 20,000 and set himself up as gurkhan (universal khan).^[22] He conquered two Jin tribes in 1129.^[23] In 1130, Dashi led his host further west in search of new territory. Within a year, he had established himself as suzerain of Qocho and gained a foothold in Transoxiana. In 1131, he attacked the Karakhanids at Kashgar but was repelled.^[22][24] He later returned in 1134 and conquered the Karakhanid city of Balasaghun (in modern Kyrgyzstan), resulting in the vassalization of the nearby Kankalis, Karluks, Kyrgyz, and the Kingdom of Qocho. Kashgar, Khotan, and Beshbalik.In 1137, he defeated the Western Karakhanids near Khujand and annexed Fergana and Tashkent. Yelü Dashi's host was further bolstered by 10,000 Khitans who had previously been subjects of the Karakhanids. They went on to conquer Kashgar, Khotan, and Beshbalik.^[25][2]

Battle of Qatwan

The Western Karakhanids were vassals of the Seljuk Empire and the Karakhanid ruler Mahmud II appealed to his Seljuk overlord Ahmad Sanjar for protection. In 1141, Sanjar with his army arrived in Samarkand. The Khitans were invited by the Khwarazmians (also a vassal of the Seljuks) to conquer the lands of the Seljuks and responded to an appeal to intervene by the Karluks who were involved in a conflict with the Karakhanids and Seljuks.^[26]

Khitan forces ranging from 20,000 to 700,000 depending on the source met in battle with Seljuk forces numbering 100,000.^[27][28][29] While many Muslim sources suggested that the Khitan forces greatly outnumbered the Seljuks, some contemporary Muslim authors also reported that the battle was fought between forces of equal size.^[30] The Khitans were also said to have been given a reinforcement of 30,000–50,000 Karluk horsemen.^[31]

The Battle of Qatwan took place on the Qatwan steppe, north of Samarkand, on 9 September 1141.^[32][33] The Khitans attacked the Seljuk forces simultaneously, encircled them, and forced the Seljuq center into a wadi called Dargham, about 12 km from Samarkand. Encircled from all directions, the Seljuq army was destroyed and Sanjar barely escaped. Figures of the dead ranged from 11,000 to 100,000.^[34] Among those captured at the battle were Seljuq military commanders and Sanjar's wife.^[34] The Seljuk defeat resulted in the loss of all of Transoxiana to the Khitans.^[2]f

After his victory, Yelü Dashi spent 90 days in Samarkand, accepting the loyalty of Muslim nobles and appointing Mahmud's brother Ibrahim as the new ruler of Samarkand. Dashi allowed the Muslim Burhan family to continue to rule Bukhara. After this battle, Khwarazm became a vassal state of the Khitans. In 1142, Dashi sent Erbuz to Khwarazm to pillage the province, which forced Atsiz to agree to pay 30,000 dinars annual tribute.^[34]

Conflict with Jin

Simultaneously during the invasion of Central Asia, Dashi also sent invasion forces to attack the Jin and retake Liao territory, however these efforts proved fruitless and ended in defeat.^[35][36] Yelü Dashi had originally hoped to recapture northern China from the Jin dynasty and restore the territories once held by the Liao dynasty.^[37][38] However, he soon discovered the relative weakness of his empire vis-a-vis the Jin dynasty and gave up the idea^[38] after a disastrous attack on the Jin dynasty in 1134.^[39] The Western Liao continued to defy Jin supremacy in 1146, and continued sending scouts and small military units against the Jin in 1156, 1177, 1185, 1188. This indicates that for the first 2 generations there remained considerable interest in reconquest.^[40]

Yelü Dashi's successors

Khitan horseman.

When Yelü Dashi died his wife, Xiao Tabuyan (1143-1150) became regent for their son. The son, Yelü Yilie, ruled from 1150 to 1163, to be succeeded by his sister, Yelü Pusuwan (1164–1177). She then fell in love with her younger brother-in-law, Xiao Fuguzhi. They were executed in 1177 by her father-in-law, Xiao Wolila, who then placed his son Yelü Zhilugu (1178–1211) on the throne. The empire was weakened by rebellions and internal wars among its vassals, especially during the latter parts of its history.

During this period the empire contracted in the northeast when in 1175 the Naimans east of the Altai and the Qangli north of Lake Balkhash made a partial submission to the Jurchens. In the west there were many conflicts with Khwarezm involving non-payment of tribute and rival claimants to the throne. Late in the period it expanded far to the south as the Khwarezmian Empire until it was conquered by the Mongols in 1220, two years after the Qara Kitai. In the south the Kara-Khanid vassals were lightly held and engaged in various conflicts with each other, the Qara Kitai, Khwarezm and the Gurids.^[41]

Kuchlug's usurpation and end of the Khanate

Main articles: Kuchlug and Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai

In 1208, a Naiman prince, Kuchlug, fled his homeland after being defeated by Mongols. Kuchlug was welcomed into the empire of the Qara-Khitans, and was allowed to marry Zhilugu's daughter. However, in 1211, Kuchlug revolted, and later captured Yelü Zhilugu while the latter was hunting. Zhilugu was allowed to remain as the nominal ruler but died two years later, and many historians regarded his death as the end of the Qara-Khitan empire. In 1216, Genghis Khan dispatched his general Jebe to pursue Kuchlug; Kuchlug fled, but in 1218, he was finally captured and decapitated. The Mongols fully conquered the former territories of the Qara-Khitans in 1220.

Aftermath

Khitan hairstyles per Chinese sources

The Qara Khitais became absorbed into the Mongol Empire; a segment of the Qara-Khitan troops had previously already joined the Mongol army fighting against Kuchlug. Another segment of the Qara-Khitans, in a dynasty founded by Buraq Hajib, survived in Kirman as a vassal of the Mongols, but ceased to exist as an entity during the reign of Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate.^[42] The Qara-Khitans were dispersed widely all over Eurasia as part of the Mongol army. In the 14th century, they began to lose their ethnic identity, traces of their presence however may be found as clan names or toponyms from Afghanistan to Moldova. Today a Khitay tribe still lives in northern Kyrgyzstan.^[19]

Administration

The Khitans ruled from their capital at Balasagun (in today's Kyrgyzstan), directly controlling the central region of the empire. The rest of their empire consisted of highly autonomous vassalized states, primarily Khwarezm, the Karluks, the Kingdom of Qocho of the Uyghurs, the Kankalis, and the Western, Eastern, and Fergana Kara-Khanids. The late-arriving Naimans also became vassals, before usurping the empire under Kuchlug.

The Khitan rulers adopted many administrative elements from the Liao dynasty, including the use of Confucian administration and imperial trappings. The empire also adopted the title of Gurkhan (universal Khan). The Khitans used the Chinese calendar, maintained Chinese imperial and administrative titles, gave its emperors reign names, used Chinese-styled coins, and sent imperial seals to its vassals.^[43] Although most of its administrative titles were derived from Chinese, the empire also adopted local administrative titles, such as tayangyu (Turkic) and vizier.

The Khitans maintained their old customs, even in Central Asia. They remained nomads, adhered to their traditional dress, and maintained the religious practices followed by the Liao dynasty Khitans. The ruling elite tried to maintain the traditional marriages between the Yelü king clan and the Xiao queen clan, and were highly reluctant to allow their princesses to marry outsiders. The Qara-Khitai Khitans followed a mix of Buddhism and traditional Khitan religion, which included fire worship and tribal customs, such as the tradition of sacrificing a gray ox with a white horse. In an innovation unique to the Qara Khitai, the Khitans paid each of their soldiers a salary.

The empire ruled over a diverse population that was quite different from its rulers. The majority of the population was sedentary, although the population suddenly became more nomadic during the end of the empire, due to the influx of Naimans. The majority of their subjects were Muslims, although a significant minority practiced Buddhism and Nestorianism. Although Chinese and Khitan were the primary languages of administration, the empire also administered in Persian and Uyghur.^[1]

Association with China

European maps showed the land of "Kara-Kithay" somewhere in Central Asia centuries after the collapse of the Qara Khitai. This 1610 map by Jodocus Hondius places it north of Tashkent.

In Chinese historiography, the Qara Khitai is most commonly called the "Western Liao" (西遼) and is considered to be an orthodox Chinese dynasty, as is the case for the Liao dynasty.^[44] The history of the Qara Khitai was included in the History of Liao (one of the Twenty-Four Histories), which was compiled officially during the Yuan dynasty by Toqto'a et al.^[44]

After the fall of the Tang dynasty, various dynasties of non-Han ethnic origins gained prestige by portraying themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China. Qara Khitai monarchs used the title of "Chinese emperor",^[45][46] and were also called the "Khan of Chīn".^[47] The Qara Khitai used the "image of China" to legitimize their rule to the Central Asians. The Chinese emperor, together with the rulers of the Turks, Arabs, India and the Byzantine Romans, were known to Islamic writers as the world's "five great kings".^[48] Qara Khitai kept the trappings of a Chinese state, such as Chinese coins, Chinese imperial titles, the Chinese writing system, tablets, seals, and used Chinese products like porcelain, mirrors, jade and other Chinese customs. The adherence to Liao Chinese traditions has been suggested as a reason why the Qara Khitai did not convert to Islam.^[49] Despite the Chinese trappings, there were comparatively few Han Chinese among the population of the Qara Khitai.^[50] These Han Chinese had lived in Kedun during the Liao dynasty,^[51] and in 1124 migrated with the Khitans under Yelü Dashi along with other people of Kedun, such as the Bohai, Jurchen, and Mongol tribes, as well as other Khitans in addition to the Xiao consort clan.^[52]

Qara Khitai's rule over the Muslim-majority Central Asia has the effect of reinforcing the view among some Muslim writers that Central Asia was linked to China even though the Tang dynasty had lost control of the region a few hundred years before. Marwazī wrote that Transoxania was a former part of China,^[53] while Fakhr al-Dīn Mubārak Shāh defined China as part of "Turkestan", and the cities of Balāsāghūn and Kashghar were considered part of China.^[54]

Legacy

The association of Khitai with China meant that the most enduring trace of the Khitan's power is names that are derived from it, such as Cathay, which is the medieval Latin appellation for China. Names derived from Khitai are still current in modern usage, such as the Russian, Bulgarian, Uzbek and Mongolian names for China.^[19] However, the use of the name Khitai to mean "China" or "Chinese" by Turkic speakers within China, such as the Uyghurs, is considered pejorative by the Chinese authorities, who tried to ban it.^[55]

Seals

Further information: Seal (East Asia)

A Khitan large script inscription on a Chinese-style official seal

In Autumn of the year 2019 a Chinese type bronze seal was discovered near a Caravanserai that was located near the Ustyurt Plateau.^[56] This seal has a weight of 330 grams and has the dimensions of 50x52x13 millimeters with a handle that is 21 millimeters in height.^[56] The inscription of the seal is written in Khitan large script and contains 20 characters.^[56] This was the first seal that could be confidently attributed to the a Western Liao period as it is attributed to have been created during the 3rd month of the year Tianxi 20 (or the year 1197 in the Gregorian calendar) during the reign of Emperor Yelü Zhilugu.^[56] The discovery of this seal further indicated that the Qara Khitai Khanate adopted the Chinese administrative practice, as such seals were commonly used in the Imperial Chinese government apparatus.^[56]

As of 2020 it is unclear if the same regulations on seals existed in Qara Khitai as did in imperial China and if the sizes of Western Liao seals were standardised or not.^[56]

Sovereigns of Qara Khitai

For a more comprehensive list, see List of emperors of the Liao dynasty.

Sovereigns of Qara Khitai (Western Liao)

Temple names (廟號 miàohào)	Posthumous names (諡號 shìhào)	Birth Names	Convention^[citation needed]	Period of Reign	Era names (年號 niánhào) and their according range of years
Dezong (德宗 Dézōng)	Emperor Tianyou Wulie (天祐武烈皇帝 Tiānyòu Wǔliè Huángdì)	Yelü Dashi (耶律大石 Yēlǜ Dàshí or 耶律達實 Yēlǜ Dáshí)^1	use birth name	1124–1144	Yanqing (延慶 Yánqìng) 1124 or 1125–1134 Kangguo (康國 Kāngguó) 1134–1144
Not applicable	Empress Gantian (感天皇后 Gǎntiān Huánghòu) (regent)	Xiao Tabuyan (蕭塔不煙 Xiāo Tǎbùyān)	"Western Liao" + posthumous name	1144–1150	Xianqing (咸清 Xiánqīng) 1144–1150
Renzong (仁宗 Rénzōng)	did not exist	Yelü Yilie (耶律夷列 Yēlǜ Yíliè)	"Western Liao" + temple name	1150–1164	Shaoxing (紹興 Shàoxīng) or Xuxing (Xùxīng 續興)^2 1150–1164
Not applicable	Empress Dowager Chengtian (承天太后 Chéngtiān Tàihòu) (regent)	Yelü Pusuwan (耶律普速完 Yēlǜ Pǔsùwán)	"Western Liao" + posthumous name	1164–1178	Chongfu (崇福 Chóngfú) 1164–1178
did not exist	Mozhu (末主 Mòzhǔ "Last Lord") or Modi (末帝 Mòdì "Last Emperor")	Yelü Zhilugu (耶律直魯古 Yēlǜ Zhílǔgǔ)	use birth name	1178–1211	Tianxi (天禧 Tiānxī or Tiānxǐ 天喜)^3 1178–1218
did not exist	did not exist	Kuchlug (屈出律 Qūchūlǜ)	use birth name	1211–1218
^1 "Dashi" might be the Chinese title "Taishi", meaning "vizier"; or, it could mean "Stone" in Turkish, as the Chinese transliteration suggests. ^2 Recently discovered Western Liao coins have the era name "Xuxing", suggesting that the era name "Shaoxing" recorded in Chinese sources may be incorrect.[57] ^3 A recently discovered Western Liao coin with the era name "Tianxi" (天喜) suggests that the era name "Tianxi" (天禧) recorded in Chinese sources may be incorrect.[58]

See also

• History of the Khitans
  • Liao dynasty
  • Northern Liao
  • Eastern Liao
  • Later Liao
  • Qutlugh-Khanids
• Buraq Hajib
• Chagatai Khanate
• Kara-Khanid Khanate
• Proto-Mongols
• History of the central steppe

Notes

References

Citations

1. Biran 2005, p. 94.
2. Grousset 1991, p. 165.
3. Pozzi, Janhunen & Weiers 2006, p. 114.
4. Taagepera, Rein (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly. 41 (3): 497. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. JSTOR 2600793.
5. Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222. ISSN 1076-156X. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
6. Lamb, Harold (1927). Genghis Khan: Emperor of All Men. International Collectors Library. p. 53.
7. Morgan & Stewart 2017, p. 57.
8. 中国历史大辞典：辽夏金元史 (in Chinese (China)). 1986. p. 131.
9. Sicker, Martin (2000). The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 57. ISBN 9780275968922.
10. Grousset, René (1970). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Rutgers University Press. p. 166. ISBN 9780813513041.
11. Komaroff, Linda (2006). Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan. Brill. p. 77. ISBN 9789047418573.
12. Biran 2005, p. 2.
13. Biran, Michal (30 June 2020). "The Qara Khitai" (PDF). Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.59. ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7. The Qara Khitai or Western Liao 西遼 dynasty (1124–1218) is the only dynasty that did not rule any part of China proper but is still considered a Chinese dynasty by both Chinese and Muslim historiography.
14. Biran 2005, p. 93, "Though firmly located in Central Asia, the Qara Khitai or Western Liao is considered by the Liao Shi to be a legitimate Chinese dynasty, whose basic annals follow that of the proper Liao".
15. Morgan & Stewart 2017, pp. 56–57.
16. Schouenborg, Laust (2016). International Institutions in World History: Divorcing International Relations Theory from the State and Stage Models. Taylor & Francis. p. 133. ISBN 9781315409887.
17. Biran 2005, pp. 216–217.
18. Chen, Yuan Julian (2014). "Legitimation Discourse and the Theory of the Five Elements in Imperial China". Journal of Song-Yuan Studies. 44 (44): 325–364. doi:10.1353/sys.2014.0000. S2CID 147099574.
19. Sinor, D. (1998), "Chapter 11 – The Kitan and the Kara Kitay" (PDF), in Asimov, M.S.; Bosworth, C.E. (eds.), History of Civilisations of Central Asia, vol. 4 part I, UNESCO Publishing, ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1, archived from the original (PDF) on 28 October 2016
20. Biran 2005, pp. 215–217.
21. Twitchett 1994, pp. 149–151.
22. Twitchett 1994, p. 151.
23. Biran 2005, p. 32.
24. Biran 2005, p. 37.
25. Biran 2005, p. 39-41.
26. Biran 2005, pp. 41–43.
27. Asimov 1999, p. 238.
28. Biran 2001, p. 61.
29. Nowell 1953, p. 442.
30. Biran 2001, p. 62.
31. Biran 2005, pp. 43–44.
32. Biran 2005, p. 43.
33. Grousset 1970, p. 160.
34. Biran 2005, p. 44.
35. Twitchett 1994, p. 153.
36. Biran 2005, p. 40.
37. Morgan & Stewart 2017, p. 56.
38. Biran, Michael (2001b). Chinggis Khan: Selected Readings. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 9781780742045.
39. Denis Twitchett, Herbert Franke, John K. Fairbank, in The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 153.
40. Michal Biran (2005). The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. p. 95. ISBN 0521842263.
41. Biran, pp. 48–80 for the complex details
42. Biran 2005, p. 87.
43. Biran 2005, pp. 93–131.
44. Biran 2005, p. 93.
45. Millward, James A. (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. Columbia University Press. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-0-231-13924-3.
46. Biran, Michal (2001). "Like a Might Wall: The armies of the Qara Khitai" (PDF). Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam. 25: 46. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 December 2015.
47. Biran 2005, p. 34.
48. Biran 2005, p. 97.
49. Biran 2005, pp. 102, 196–201.
50. Biran 2005, pp. 96–.
51. Biran 2005, pp. 27–.
52. Biran 2005, p. 146.
53. Biran 2005, pp. 98–99.
54. Biran 2005, pp. 99–101.
55. James A. Millward; Peter C. Perdue (2004). S.F.Starr (ed.). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Boarderland. M.E. Sharpe. p. 43. ISBN 9781317451372.
56. Vladimir A. Belyaev; A.A. Mospanov; S.V. Sidorovich (March 2020). "Recently discovered Khitan script official seal of the Western Liao State (Russian Studies of Chinese Numismatics and Sigillography)". Numismatique Asiatique. 33. Academia.edu. Retrieved 1 June 2021.
57. Belyaev, V.A.; Nastich, V.N.; Sidorovich, S.V. (2012). "The coinage of Qara Khitay: a new evidence (on the reign title of the Western Liao Emperor Yelü Yilie)". Proceedings of the 3rd Simone Assemani Symposium, September 23–24, 2011, Rome.
58. Belyaev (别利亚耶夫), V.A.; Sidorovich (西多罗维奇), S.V. (2022). "天喜元宝"辨—记新发现的西辽钱币" (PDF). 中国钱币: 36–38.

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• Grousset, Rene (1991). The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. Rutgers University Press.
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