Pollution in China

Comparison of haze and sunny days in Liaoning, China. The two images were taken 10 days apart.

Pollution in China is one aspect of the broader topic of environmental issues in China. Various forms of pollution have increased following the industrialisation of China, causing widespread environmental and health problems.^[1][2][3]

Pollution statistics

Soil

The immense population growth in the People's Republic of China since the 1980s has resulted in increased soil pollution.^{[citation needed]} The State Environmental Protection Administration believes it to be a threat to the environment, food safety and sustainable agriculture. 38,610 square miles (100,000 km²) of China's cultivated land have been polluted, with contaminated water being used to irrigate further 31.5 million square miles (21,670km².), and another 2 million square miles (1,300 km²) have been covered or destroyed by solid waste.^{[citation needed]} The affected area accounts for one-tenth of China's cultivable land. An estimated 6 million tonnes of food grain are contaminated by heavy metals every year, causing direct losses of 29 billion yuan (US$2.57 billion).^{[citation needed]} The presence of heavy metals (including mercury, lead, cadmium, copper, nickel, chromium, and zinc) in the contaminated soil have adverse health effects on human metabolism. Ingestion, contact through the skin, diet through the soil-food chain, respiratory intake, and oral intake can deliver toxic substances to humans.^[4]

Waste

As China's waste production increases, insufficient efforts to develop capable recycling systems have been attributed to a lack of environmental awareness.^[5] In 2012, the waste generation in China was 300 million tons (229.4 kg/cap/yr).^[6]

A ban came into effect on 15 June 2008 that prohibited all supermarkets, department stores and shops throughout China from giving out free plastic bags, therefore encouraging people to use cloth bags.^[7] Stores must clearly mark the price of plastic shopping bags and are banned from adding that price onto the price of products. The production, sale and use of ultra-thin plastic bags—those less than 0.025 millimeters (0.00098  in) thick—are also banned. The State Council called for "a return to cloth bags and shopping baskets."^[8] This ban, however, does not affect the widespread use of paper shopping bags at clothing stores or the use of plastic bags at restaurants for takeout food. A survey by the International Food Packaging Association found that in the year after the ban was implemented, 10 percent fewer plastic bags found their way into the garbage.^[9]

A particularly significant source of waste is the agricultural sector. In fact, Chinese farms generate more pollution than factories, according to a large survey by the government.^[10] Pesticides and fertilizer residues, packaging associated, bags and mulch film are largely left untreated in landfills, often due to a lack of waste management infrastructure.^[11]

"White pollution"

The term "white pollution" (Chinese: 白色污染; pinyin: baise wuran, less often "white garbage" Chinese: 白色垃圾; pinyin: baise laji) appears to be local to China and later to South Asia, enjoying far less use and recognition outside of the region. It refers to the color of white plastic shopping bags, Styrofoam containers, and other light-colored materials that began turning up in visible volume in agricultural fields, the landscape, and waterways in the mid-to-late 1990s. The first references to the term "white pollution" appeared in official language at least as early as 1999 when the first bans were imposed by the State Council.^{[12][13][14][15][16]}

Electronic waste

Main article: Electronic waste in China

In 2011, China produced 2.3 million tons of electronic waste.^[17] The annual amount is expected to increase as the Chinese economy grows. In addition to domestic waste production, large amounts of electronic waste are imported from overseas. Legislation has banned the importation of electronic waste. Requiring proper disposal of domestic waste has recently been introduced but has been criticized as insufficient and susceptible to fraud.^{[citation needed]} There have been local successes, such as in the city of Tianjin, where 38,000 tons of electronic waste were disposed of properly in 2010, though much electronic waste is still improperly handled.^[18]

Industrial pollution

Air pollution caused by industrial plants

In a 1997 report targeting China's policy towards industrial pollution, the World Bank stated that "hundreds of thousands of premature deaths and incidents of serious respiratory illness have been caused by exposure to industrial air pollution.^[19] Since the Industrial Revolution, air pollution has been a major source of worry for human growth. Using an original survey in China, a first causal estimate of pollution's impact on political opinions was given. The survey further stated that due to serious contamination of China's waterways by industrial discharges, many are largely unfit for direct human use. However, the report did acknowledge that environmental regulations and industrial reforms have had some effect. It was determined that continued environmental reforms were likely to have a large effect on reducing industrial pollution.^[19]

In its 2007 article about China's pollution problem, The New York Times stated that "Environmental degradation is now so severe, with such stark domestic and international repercussions, that pollution poses not only a major long-term burden on the Chinese public but also an acute political challenge to the ruling Communist Party." The article's main points included:^[20]

1. According to the Chinese Ministry of Health, industrial pollution has made cancer China's leading cause of death.
2. Every year, ambient air pollution alone kills hundreds of thousands of citizens.
3. 500 million people in China are without safe and clean drinking water.
4. Only 1% of the country's 560 million "city people" breathe air considered safe by the European Union, because all of its major cities are constantly covered in a "toxic gray shroud". Before and during the 2008 Summer Olympics, Beijing was "frantically searching for a magic formula, a meteorological deus ex machina, to clear its skies for the 2008 Olympics."^[21]
5. Lead poisoning or other types of local pollution continue to kill many children.
6. A large section of the ocean is without marine life because of massive algal blooms caused by the high nutrients in the water.
7. The pollution has spread internationally: sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides fall as acid rain on Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo; and according to the Journal of Geophysical Research, the pollution even reaches Los Angeles in the US.
8. The Chinese Academy of Environmental Planning in 2003 produced an unpublished internal report which estimated that 300,000 people die each year from ambient air pollution, mostly of heart disease and lung cancer.
9. Chinese environmental experts in 2005 issued another report, estimating that annual premature deaths attributable to outdoor air pollution were likely to reach 380,000 in 2010 and 550,000 in 2020.
10. A 2007 World Bank report conducted with China's national environmental agency found that "[...] outdoor air pollution was already causing 350,000 to 400,000 premature deaths a year. Indoor pollution contributed to the deaths of an additional 300,000 people, while 60,000 died from diarrhea, bladder and stomach cancer and other diseases that can be caused by water-borne pollution." World Bank officials said that "China’s environmental agency insisted that the health statistics be removed from the published version of the report, citing the possible impact on 'social stability'".

A draft of a 2007 combined World Bank and SEPA report stated that up to 760,000 people die prematurely each year in China due to air and water pollution. High levels of air pollution in China's cities cause 350,000–400,000 premature deaths. Another 300,000 die because of poor-quality indoor air. There are an additioanl 60,000 premature deaths each year because of poor water quality. Chinese officials asked that some of the results should not be published in order to avoid social unrest.^[22]

China has made some improvements in environmental protection in recent years. According to the World Bank, 'China is one of a few countries in the world that have been rapidly increasing their forest cover. It is managing to reduce air and water pollution.^[23]

Vennemo et al., in a 2009 literature review in Review of Environmental Economics and Policy, noted the wide discrepancy between the reassuring view presented in some Chinese official publications and the exclusively negative view in some Western sources. The review stated that "although China is starting from a point of grave pollution, it is setting priorities and making progress that resemble what occurred in industrialized countries during their earlier stages of development." Environmental trends were described as uneven. The quality of surface water in the south of China was improving and particle emissions were stable. However, NO₂ emissions were increasing rapidly, and SO₂ emissions had been increasing before decreasing in 2007, the last year for which data was available.^[24]

Conventional approaches to air quality monitoring in China are based on networks of static and sparse measurement stations. However, there are drivers behind current rises in the use of low-cost sensors for air pollution management in cities.^[25]

The immense urban growth of Chinese cities has substantially increased the need for consumer goods, vehicles and energy. This in turn increases the burning of fossil fuels, resulting in smog. Exposure to Smog poses a threat to the health of Chinese citizens. A study from 2012 showed fine particles in the air, which cause respiratory and cardiovascular diseases were one of the key pollutants that accounted for a large fraction of damage on the health of Chinese citizens.^[26]

Water pollution

The water resources of China are affected by both severe water shortages and severe water pollution.^{[citation needed]} The rapid population increase and rapid economic growth, as well as lax environmental oversight, resulted in increased water demand and pollution. According to an investigation in 1980, the entire country has 440 billion cubic meters of total water consumption^{[clarification needed]}. Consumption by agriculture, forestry, husbandry, and country residents was about 88 percent of the total consumption. However, an investigation shows that 19 percent of water in main rivers has been polluted^[specify] with a total length of 95,000 kilometers. In addition, a survey of 878 rivers in the early 1980s shows that 80 percent of them were polluted to some extent and that fish became extinct^{[clarification needed]} in more than 5 percent of the total river length throughout the country. Furthermore, there are over 20 waterways unsuitable for agricultural irrigation due to water pollution.^[27] In response, China has taken measures such as rapidly building out the water infrastructure and increased regulation as well as exploring a number of further technological solutions.^{[citation needed]}

Air pollution

North-Eastern China from space, 2009. Thick haze blown off the Eastern coast of China, over Bo Hai Bay and the Yellow Sea. The haze might have resulted from urban and industrial pollution.

In northern China, air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, principally coal, is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they otherwise might.

Tim Flannery, Atmosphere of Hope, 2015.^[28]

Map of PM2.5 pollution over China from April to August 2014

Air pollution is a major public health issue in China. Over the past three decades, the rapid development of China has resulted in excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. Among the 337 cities, more than 40 percent of the major air pollutant concentrations exceeded Chinese standards.^[29] In the last few years, however, China has made significant progress in reducing air pollution. In 2016, only 84 out of 338 prefecture-level (administrative division of the People's Republic of China (PRC), ranking below a province and above a county) or higher cities attained the national standard for air quality.^{[30][unreliable source?]} However, by 2018, those 338 cities enjoyed good air quality on 79% of days.^{[31][unreliable source?]} The amount of harmful particulates in the air in China fell by 40% from 2013 to 2020.^[32]

Average PM2.5 concentrations fell by 33% from 2013 to 2017 in 74 cities.^[33] The overall pollution in China fell further 10% between 2017 and 2018.^[34] Another study shows that China reduced PM2.5 by 47% between 2005 and 2015.^[35] In August 2019, Beijing experienced the lowest PM2.5 on record—a low of 23 micrograms per cubic meter.^[36] Beijing is on track to drop out of the Top 200 most polluted cities by the end of 2019.^{[37][needs update]} The reasons are many fold:^[38] (1) Millions of homes and businesses are switching from coal to natural gas^[39][40] and (2) Afforestation measures.^[41] China is also the world's largest producer of electric cars.^[42]

Air pollution levels dropped in early 2020 due to quarantines addressing the coronavirus pandemic. By early 2021, however, the levels had risen again.^[43][44]

The Chinese government realized that the pollution negatively affected public sentiment, so it increased funding for anti-pollution measures to reduce dissent. An example of this is that in 2013, China's Academy for Environmental Planning pledged $277 billion to combat urban air pollution.^[40] In the first batch of 74 cities that implemented the 2012 Environmental Air Quality Standards, the average concentration of PM2.5 and sulfur dioxide dropped by 42 percent and 68 percent, respectively, between 2013 and 2018.^[45]

Zhong Nanshan, the president of the China Medical Association, warned in 2012 that air pollution could become China's biggest health threat.^[46] Measurements by Beijing municipal government in January 2013 showed that highest recorded level of PM2.5 (particulate matter smaller than 2.5 micrometers in size), was at nearly 1,000 μg per cubic meter.^[47] PM_2.5, consisting of K⁺, Ca²⁺, NO₃⁻, and SO₄^2-, had the most fearsome impact on people's health in Beijing throughout the year, especially in cold seasons.^[48] Traces of smog from mainland China has been observed to reach as far as California.^[49]

Sulfur dioxide emission peaked in 2006, after which it began to decline by 10.4% in 2008 compared to 2006.^[50] This was accompanied by improvements on related phenomenons such as lower frequency of acid rainfall. The adoption by power plants of flue-gas desulfurization technology was likely the main reason for reduced SO₂ emissions.^[50]

Large-scale use of formaldehyde in producing home building products in construction and furniture also contributes to indoor air pollution.^[51]

Particulates

Particulates are formed from both primary and secondary pathways.^[52] Primary sources such as coal combustion, biomass combustion and traffic directly emit particulate matter (PM). The emissions from power plants are considerably higher than in other countries, as most Chinese facilities do not employ any flue gas treatment.^[53] High secondary aerosol^[54] (particulates formed through atmospheric oxidation and reactions of gaseous organic compounds) contribution to particulate pollution in China is found.^[55] According to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, such fine particles can cause asthma, bronchitis, and acute and chronic respiratory symptoms such as shortness of breath and painful breathing, and may also lead to premature death.^[56]

According to the World Bank, the Chinese cities with the highest levels of particulate matter in 2004 of those studied were Tianjin, Chongqing, and Shenyang.^[57] In 2012 stricter air pollution monitoring of ozone and PM2.5 were ordered to be gradually implemented from large cities and key areas to all prefecture-level cities, and from 2015 all prefecture-level or higher cities were included.^[58] State media acknowledged the role of environmental campaigners in causing this change. On one micro-blog service, more than a million mostly positive comments were posted in less than 24 hours, although some wondered if the standards would be effectively enforced.^[59]

The US embassy in Beijing regularly posts automated air quality measurements at @beijingair on Twitter. On 18 November 2010, the feed described the PM2.5 AQI (Air Quality Index) as "Crazily bad" after registering a reading in excess of 500 for the first time. This description was later changed to "beyond index",^[60] a level which recurred in February, October, and December 2011.^[61][62][63]

In June 2012, following strongly divergent disclosures of particulate levels between the Observatory and the US Embassy, Chinese authorities asked foreign consulates to stop publishing "inaccurate and unlawful" data.^[64] Officials said it was "not scientific to evaluate the air quality of an area with results gathered from just only one point inside that area", and asserted that official daily average PM2.5 figures for Beijing and Shanghai were "almost the same with the results published by foreign embassies and consulates".^[64]

By January 2013 the pollution had worsened, with official Beijing data showing an average AQI of over 300 and readings of up to 700 at individual recording stations; the US Embassy recorded over 755 on 1 January and 800 by 12 January 2013.^[65][66]

On 21 October 2013, record smog in Northeast China temporarily closed all primary and middle schools in Harbin, as well as Harbin Airport. Daily particulate levels of more than 50 times the World Health Organization recommended daily level were reported in parts of the municipality.^[67]

In 2016, Beijing's yearly average PM2.5 was 73 μg/m³, a 9.9% improvement compared to 2015. In total, 39 severely polluted days were recorded, 5 fewer compared to 2015.^[68]

2016 Air pollution in Beijing as measured by Air Quality Index (AQI)

   Severely polluted

   Heavily polluted

   Moderately polluted

   Lightly polluted

   Good

  Excellent

Analysis of the PM2.5 sources of some Chinese cities / regions^[69] (click "show" to expand the table)

Location	Main Sources of PM2.5	Sampling Time Period	Method
Ningbo	Urban dust (20.42%), coal dust (14.37%) and vehicle exhaust (15.15%)	15–24 Mar 2010; 31 May–9 June 2010; 10–19 Dec 2010	CMB
Urumchi	Urban dust (24.7%), coal dust (15.6%) and secondary particles (38.0%)	19–30 Jan 2013	CMB
Qizhou	Dust (21–35%), secondary particles (25–26%) and vehicle exhaust (21–26%)	Sep 2013; Feb–Mar 2014; May 2014	CMB
Ningbo	Urban dust (19.9%), coal dust (14.4%), secondary sulfate (16.9%), vehicle exhaust (15.2%), secondary nitrate (9.78%) and secondary organic carbon (8.85%)	25–31 Jan 2010; 31 May–6 June 2010; 10–16 Oct 2010	CMB
Tianjin	Open source (urban dust, soil dust and construction cement dust, total contribution of 30%), Secondary particles (secondary sulfate/nitrate, secondary carbon, total contribution of 28%), coal dust (19.6%) and vehicle exhaust (15.9%)	13–20 May 2010; 20–27 Oct 2010; 19–26 Dec 2010	CMB
Chongqing	Secondary particles (30.1%) and moving source (27.9%)	6–28 Feb 2012; 6–28 Aug 2012; 19–27 Oct 2012; 7–29 Dec 2012	CMB
Beijing	Secondary inorganic salts (36%), organic matter (20%), vehicle/fuel (16%), coal burning (15%), soil dust (6%) and others (7%)	Aug 2012–July 2013, continuous for 5 to 7 days per month	CMB
Xining	Urban dust (26.24%), coal dust (14.5%), vehicle exhaust (12.8%), secondary sulphate (9.0%), biomass burning (6.6%), secondary nitrates (5.7%), steel dust (4.7%), construction dust (4.4%), soil dust (4.4%), food and beverage emissions (2.9%) and other unidentified sources (5.2%)	26 Feb–4 Mar 2014; 22–28 Apr 2014; 19–25 Sep 2014	CMB
Xingtai	Coal dust (25%), secondary inorganic particles (sulfate and nitrate, 45%), vehicle exhaust (11%), dust (9%), soil dust (3%), construction and metallurgical dust (1%) and other unidentified sources (3%)	24 Feb–15 Mar 2014; 22 Apr–19 May 2014; 15–28 July 2014	CMB
Wuhan	Vehicle sources (27.1%), secondary sulphates/nitrates (26.8%), manufacturing emissions (26.4%) and biomass combustion (19.6%)	July 2011–Feb 2012	CMB
Chengdu	Soil dust and raise dust (14.3%), biomass combustion (28.0%), vehicle sources (24.0%) and secondary nitrates/sulfates (31.3%)	29 Apr–17 May 2009; 6 July–6 Aug 2009; 26 Oct–26 Nov 2009; 1–31 Jan 2010	CMB
Shenzhen	Secondary sulphate (30.0%), vehicle sources (26.9%), biomass combustion (9.8%) and secondary nitrates (9.3%)	Jan–Dec 2009	CMB
Suburbs of Shanghai	Secondary aerosol (50.8%), fuel combustion (17.5%), biomass combustion/sea salt (17.2%), raise dust/construction dust (7.7%), and coal-burning/smelting dust (6.9%)	23 Dec 2012–18 Feb 2014	CMB
North China	Coal combustion (29.6%), biomass combustion (19.3%) and vehicle sources (15.9%)	3 Jan–11 Feb 2014	CMB
Lanzhou	Steel industry, secondary aerosols, coal combustion, power plants, vehicle emissions, crustal dust, and smelting industry contributed 7.1%, 33.0%, 28.7%, 3.12%, 8.8%, 13.3%, and 6.0%, respectively, in winter, and 6.7%, 14.8%, 3.1%, 3.4%, 25.2%, 11.6% and 35.2% in summer	Winter 2012 and summer 2013	PMF
Chongqing	Secondary inorganic aerosols (37.5%), coal combustion (22.0%), other industrial pollution (17.5%), soil dust (11.0%), vehicular emission (9.8%) and metallurgical industry (2.2%)	2012–2013	PMF
Yellow River Delta National Nature Reserve (YRDNNR)	Secondary sulphate and nitrate (54.3%), biomass burning (15.8%), industry (10.7%), crustal matter (8.3%), vehicles (5.2%) and copper smelting (4.9%)	Jan–Nov 2011	PMF
Shanghai	Coal burning (30.5%), gasoline engine emission (29.0%), diesel engine emission (17.5%), air-surface exchange (11.9%) and biomass burning (11.1%)	Oct 2011–Aug 2012	PMF
Zhengzhou	Coal burning (29%), vehicle (26%), dust (21%), secondary aerosols (17%) and biomass burning (4%)	Apr 2011–Dec 2013	PMF
Qingshan District, Wuhan	Traffic exhaust (28.60%), industry (27.10%), road dust (22%), coal combustion (13.20%) and building dust (9.5%)	15 Nov–28 Dec 2013	PMF
Beijing	Industrial dust and human activities (40.3%), biomass combustion and building dust (27.0%), soil and wind induced dust (9.1%), fossil fuel sources (4.9%), electronic waste sources (4.8%) and regional migration sources (4.6%)	16 Jan–28 Feb 2013	FA
Hangdan	Secondary aerosol source, transportation, fossil fuel and biomass burning (46.5%), soil and construction dust (19.5%), steel industry (19.5%) and transportation (9%)	Jan, Apr, July and Oct 2015	PCA
Hangdan	Industry and coal burning (33.3%), secondary aerosol and biomass burning (21.7%), vehicle (12.8%) and road dust (9.1%),	Oct 2012–Jan 2013	PCA
Guangzhou	Moving sources (37.4%), industrial emissions (32.2%), electricity emissions (12.2%), residential emissions (6.6%) and others (11.6%)	Jan–Dec 2013	WRF/Chem+ observation data analysis
Heze	Secondary inorganic salt (32.61%), vehicle emissions (22.60%), raise dust (19.64%), coal dust (16.25%) and construction cement dust (9.00%)	13–22 Aug 2015; 21–30 Oct 2015; 14–23 Jan 2016 7–16 Apr 2016	PMF and backward trajectory model
Tianjin	Secondary sources (30%), crustal dust (25%), vehicle exhaust (16%), coal combustion (13%), SOC (7.6%) and cement dust (0.40%)	Apr 2014–Jan 2015	Chemical mass balance gas constraint-Iteration (CMBGC-Iteration)
Tianjin	Secondary sources (28%), crustal dust (20%), coal combustion (18%), vehicle exhaust (17%), SOC (11%) and cement dust (1.3%)	Apr 2014–Jan 2015	Ensemble-average of CMB, CMB-Iteration, CMB-GC, PMF, WALSPMF, and NCAPCA
25 Chinese provincial capitals and municipalities	Power plants (8.7–12.7%), agriculture NH3 (9.5–12%), windblown dust (6.1–12.5%) and secondary organic aerosol (SOA) (5.4–15.5%)	2013	Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model
Xinzhen District, Beijing	Coal burning (29.2%), vehicle exhaust and waste incineration (26.2%), construction industry (23.3%), soil (15.4%) and industry with chlorine (5.9%)	19 May 2007–19 July 2013	Particle Induced X-ray Emission(PIXE), X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF), and PMF
Beijing	Coal (28.06%), vehicle (19.73%), dust (17.88%), industry (16.50%), food (3.43%) and plant (3.40%)	2012	Inventory-Chemical Mass Balance (I-CMB)

The above results are summarised from multiple research papers. Methods used; CMB: chemical mass balance method; PMF: positive matrix factorization; FA: factor analysis; PCA: principal component analysis; WRF: Weather Research and Forecasting; WALSPMF: Weighted Alternating Least Squares Positive Matrix Factorization; NCAPCA: Non-negative Constrained Absolutely Principle Analysis.^[69]

Government's response to the air pollution

In an attempt to reduce air pollution, the Chinese government decided to enforce stricter regulations. After record-high air pollution in northern China in 2012 and 2013,^[70] the State Council issued an Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution in September 2013.^[71]: 40 This plan aimed to reduce PM2.5 by over 10% from 2012 to 2017.^[72] Twelve west-east air pollution control transmission corridors are also being developed, per the Action Plan.^[71]: 40

The most prominent government response has been in Beijing, aiming to reduce PM2.5 by 25% from 2012 to 2017.^[73] As the capital of China, Beijing suffers from high levels of air pollution. According to Reuters, the Chinese government published the plan to tackle the air pollution problem on its official website in September 2013.^[74] The main goal of the plan is to reduce coal consumption by closing polluting mills, factories, and smelters and switching to other eco-friendly energy sources.^[73]

These policies have been taking effect, and in 2015, the average PM2.5 in 74 key cities under the monitoring system was 55 μg/m³, showing a 23.6% decrease as of 2013.^[75] Despite the reduction in coal consumption and polluting industries, China still maintained a stable economic growth rate from 7.7% in 2013 to 6.9% in 2015.^[76]

On 20 August 2015, ahead of the 70th-anniversary celebrations of the end of World War II, the Beijing government shut down industrial facilities and reduced car emissions in order to achieve a "Parade Blue" sky for the occasion. This action resulted in PM2.5 concentration lower than the 35 μg/m³ national air quality standard,^[77] according to data from Beijing Municipal Environmental Protection Monitoring Centre (BMEMC). The restrictions resulted in an average Beijing PM2.5 concentration of 19.5 μg/m³, the lowest that had ever been on record in the capital.^[78]

China's strategy has been mainly focused on the development of other energy sources such as nuclear, hydro and compressed natural gas. The latest plan^[75] entails closing the outdated capacity of the industrial sectors like iron, steel, aluminum and cement and increasing nuclear capacity and other non-fossil fuel energy. It also includes an intention to stop approving new thermal power plants and to cut coal consumption in industrial areas.^[75]

According to research,^[79] substituting all coal consumption for residential and commercial use to natural gas requires additional 88 billion cubic meters of natural gas, which is 60% of China's total consumption in 2012, incurring a net cost of 32–52 billion dollars. Substituting the share of coal-fired power plants with renewable and nuclear energy also requires 700GW of additional capacity, which costs 184 billion dollars. Therefore, the net cost would be 140–160 billion dollars considering the value of saved coal.^[79] Since all the above policies have been already partially implemented by national and city governments, some believe that they can lead to substantial improvements in urban air quality.^[79]

In northern China, air pollution from the burning of fossil fuels, principal [sic] coal, is causing people to die on average 5.5 years sooner than they otherwise might.

— Tim Flannery, Atmosphere of Hope, 2015.^[28]

Four-color alert system

Beijing launched the four-color alert system in 2013. It is based on the air quality index (AQI), which indicates how clean or polluted the air is.^[80]

The Beijing government revised their four-color alert system at the start of 2016, increasing the levels of pollution required to trigger orange and red alerts. The change was introduced to standardize the alert levels across four cities including Tianjin and four cities in Hebei, and perhaps in direct response to the red alerts issues the previous December.^[81][82]

AQI	Description
101–150	Slight pollution
151–200	Moderate pollution
201–300	Heavy pollution
301–500	Hazardous

Color	Condition
Blue	"Heavy pollution" in the next 24 hours
Yellow	"Hazardous" in the next 24 hours; or "heavy pollution" for three consecutive days
Orange	Alternate "heavy pollution" and "hazardous" days for three consecutive days
Red	Average of "heavy pollution" for four consecutive days, "hazardous" for two consecutive days or average AQI over 500 for one day and can be very dangerous.

Light pollution

With active economic growth and a huge number of citizens, China is considered the largest developing country in the world. Due to urbanization, light pollution generally is an environmental factor that significantly influences the quality and health of wildlife. According to Pengpeng Han et al., "In the 1990s, the increasing trend in light pollution regions mostly occurred in larger urban cities, which are mainly located in eastern and coastal areas, whereas the decreasing trend areas were chiefly industrial and mining cities rich in mineral resources, in addition to the central parts of large cities". In the 2000s, nearly all urban cities were dominated by an uprising trend in light pollution.^[83]

Common pollutants

Lead

Lead poisoning was described in a 2001 paper as one of the most common pediatric health problems in China. A 2006 review of existing data suggested that one-third of Chinese children suffer from elevated serum lead levels. Pollution from metal smelters and a fast-growing battery industry has been responsible for most cases of, particularly high lead levels. In 2011, there were riots in the Zhejiang Haijiu Battery Factory from angry parents whose children received permanent neurological damage from lead poisoning. The central government has acknowledged the problem and has taken measures, such as suspending battery factory production, but some see the response as inadequate and some local authorities have tried to silence criticisms.^[84]

A literature review of academic studies on Chinese children's blood lead levels found that the lead levels declined when comparing the studies published during the 1995–2003 and 2004–2007 periods. Lead levels also showed a declining trend after China banned lead in gasoline in 2000. Lead levels were still higher than those in developed nations. Industrial areas had higher levels than suburban areas, which had higher levels than urban areas. Controlling and preventing lead poisoning was described as a long-term mission.^[85]

Persistent organic pollutants

China is a signatory nation of the Stockholm Convention, a treaty to control and phase out major persistent organic pollutants (POP). A plan of action for 2010 includes objectives such as eliminating the production, import and use of the pesticides covered under the convention, as well as an accounting system for PCB containing equipment. For 2015, China plans to establish an inventory of POP-contaminated sites and remediation plans.^[86] Since May 2009, this treaty also covers polybrominated diphenyl ethers and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid. Perfluorinated compounds are associated with altered thyroid function and decreased sperm count in humans.^[87] China faces challenges in controlling and eliminating POPs, since they often are cheaper than their alternatives or are unintentionally produced and then released into the environment to save on treatment costs.

Yellow dust

The Yellow dust or Asian dust is a seasonal dust cloud that affects Northeast Asia during late winter and springtime. The dust originates in the deserts of Mongolia, northern China and Kazakhstan where high-speed surface winds and intense dust storms kick up dense clouds of fine, dry soil particles. These clouds are then carried eastward by prevailing winds and pass over Northern China into Korea and Japan.

Desertification has intensified in China. 1,740,000 square kilometres of land is classified as "dry", and desertification disrupts the lives of 400 million people and causes direct economic losses of 54 billion yuan ($7 billion) a year.^[88] Sulfur (an acid rain component), soot, ash, carbon monoxide, and other toxic pollutants including heavy metals (such as mercury, cadmium, chromium, arsenic, lead, zinc, copper) and other carcinogens, often accompany the dust storms, as well as viruses, bacteria, fungi, pesticides, antibiotics, asbestos, herbicides, plastic ingredients, combustion products and hormone mimicking phthalates.^[89]

Coal

The increasing number of air pollutants can cause incidents of low visibility for days and acid rain. According to the article "Air Pollution in Mega Cities in China",^[90] "Coal accounts for 70% of the total energy consumption, and emissions from coal combustion are the major anthropogenic contributors to air pollution in China." The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences also highlights the Huai River Policy established during China's central planning period between 1950 and 1980. The policy provided homes and offices with free coal for winter heating but was limited solely to the Northern region due to budget limitations. The policy led to a dramatic increase in coal consumption and production. Coal production alongside rapid economic growth has increased the emission of harmful pollutants such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and small particle matter known as PM2.5 and PM10.^[91] Long-term exposure to pollutants can cause health risks such as respiratory diseases, cancer, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. Coal is a huge issue because of the SO2 emissions from coal factories. According to the article, "SO2 exceeded the Chinese Grade-II standards in 22% of the country’s cities and caused acid rain problems in 38% of the cities."^[90]

Other pollutants

In 2010, 49 employees at Wintek were poisoned by n-hexane in the manufacturing of touchscreens for Apple products.^[92]

In 2013, it was revealed that portions of the country's rice supply were tainted with the toxic metal cadmium.^[93]

Impact of pollution

Smog in Beijing, 2013

A 2006 Chinese green gross domestic product estimate stated that pollution in 2004 cost 3.05% of the nation's economy.^[94]

A 2007 World Bank and SEPA report estimated the cost of water and air pollution in 2003 to be 2.68% or 5.78% of GDP depending on the use of either a Chinese or a Western method of calculation.^[95]

A 2009 review stated a range of 2.2–10% of GDP.^[24]

A 2012 study stated that pollution had little effect on economic growth, which in China's case was largely dependent on physical capital expansion and increased energy consumption due to the dependency on manufacturing and heavy industries. China was predicted to continue to grow using energy-inefficient and polluting industries. While growth may continue, the rewards of this growth may be opposed by the harm from the pollution unless environmental protection is increased.^[96]

A 2013 study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences found that severe pollution during the 1990s cut five and a half (5.5) years from the average life expectancy of people living in northern China, where toxic air has led to increased rates of stroke, heart disease and cancer.^[97]

A 2015 study from the non-profit organization Berkeley Earth estimated that 1.6 million people in China die each year from heart, lung and stroke problems because of polluted air.^[98]

Ironically, a 2024 study found that precipitous declines in pollution, following the 2013 clean air action plan, may have contributed to the anomalous Blob, an immense and intense patch of warming in the Pacific Ocean. Said pollution appears to have scattered and blocked heat from the sun.^[99] However, experts stress that there were many factors causing the Blob, not the least of which was greenhouse gas emissions.^[100]

Cross-border pollution

See also: Air pollution in Taiwan

Pollution ratings

As of 2019:

• The top five cities with the best air quality: Lhasa, Haikou, Zhoushan, Xiamen, Huangshan^[101]
• The 10 cities with the worst air quality: Anyang, Xingtai, Shijiazhuang, Handan, Linfen, Tangshan, Taiyuan, Zibo, Jiaozuo, Jincheng^[101]

According to the National Environmental Analysis released by Tsinghua University and The Asian Development Bank in January 2013, seven of the ten most air polluted cities in the world are in China, including Taiyuan, Beijing, Urumqi, Lanzhou, Chongqing, Jinan and Shijiazhuang.^[102]

National Sword Policy

This section is an excerpt from Operation National Sword.[edit]

The Operation National Sword (ONS) was a policy initiative launched in 2017 by the government of China to monitor and more stringently review recyclable waste imports.^[103] By 1 January 2018, China had banned 24 categories of solid waste and had also stopped importing plastic waste with a contamination level of above 0.05 percent, which was significantly lower than the 10 percent that it had previously allowed.^[104] Before the policy, China was importing the vast majority of recyclables from North America and Europe for two decades. This practice of buying recyclables brought raw materials for the growing industrial capacity of China, but also brought a lot of contaminated recyclables which ended up accruing in China, causing other environmental concerns such as air and water pollution.

China had first brought awareness of its intention to limit its imports of contaminated waste and recyclables back in 2013, through its Operation Green Fence program, that consequently impacted western waste exporters negatively.^[105] The later ONS policy was interpreted as an international relations move by China against Western countries.^[106] The policy caused a ripple effect in the global recyclables market, causing major pile ups in Western countries who had been collecting lower quality recyclables in single-stream recycling, and displacing some of those recyclable to other countries, mostly in South East Asia, like Vietnam and Malaysia.

See also (some in only original Chinese)

• 2009 Chinese lead poisoning scandal
• 2013 Eastern China smog
• 2013 Northeastern China smog
• Automotive industry in China
• China Energy Conservation Investment Corporation
• China Pollution Map Database
• Clear waters and green mountains
• Climate change in China
• Construction
• Environment of China
• Environmental issues in China
• Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags
• Brother Nut
• List of power stations in China
• Low-carbon economy
• Peak oil
• Renewable energy in China
• Renovation
• Soot
• List of countries by energy consumption and production
• Category:Energy by country

• Haze
• Smog

1. Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (1987)
2. Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (1995)
3. Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2000)
4. Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2015)
5. Air Pollution Prevention and Control Law (2018)
6. Soil Pollution Prevention and Control law
7. Solid Waste Pollution Prevention and Control law
8. Radioactive Pollution Prevention and Control law

References

1. Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 (ISBN 9780241958681). See chapter 12 entitled "China, Lurching Giant" (pages 258–377).
2. "The Most Polluted Places on Earth". CBS News. 8 January 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
3. "Air Pollution Grows in Tandem with China's Economy". NPR.org. NPR. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
4. Zhang, Xiuying; et al. (7 August 2015). "Impact of Soil Heavy Metal Pollution on Food Safety in China". PLOS ONE. 10 (8): e0135182. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1035182Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135182. PMC 4529268. PMID 26252956.
5. Violet Law (28 July 2011). "As China's prosperity grows, so do its trash piles". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
6. Waste Atlas Archived 7 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine (2012). Country Data: CHINA
7. Bodeen, Christopher. "China Bans Free Plastic Bags". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on 16 January 2008. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
8. "China bans free plastic shopping bags", AP Press via the International Herald Tribune, 9 January 2008
9. David Biello, Scientific American, Does banning plastic bags work?
10. Watts, Jonathan; correspondent, Asia environment (9 February 2010). "Chinese farms cause more pollution than factories, says official survey". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 6 May 2023. {{cite news}}: |last2= has generic name (help)
11. Xu, Xiaoqian; Mola-Yudego, Blas; Selkimäki, Mari; Zhang, Xiaoning; Qu, Mei (1 January 2023). "Determinants of farmers' waste generation and disposal in rural areas of central China". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 30 (4): 9011–9021. doi:10.1007/s11356-022-20491-9. ISSN 1614-7499. PMID 35655009.
12. Iechika, Ryoko (家近亮子) (2000). "日本の対中環境協力と中国の環境行政システム" [Japanese environmental cooperation for China and the system of environmental administration of China]. 环境情报研究8号 (in Japanese). 8: 95 (note 1). Retrieved 24 November 2021. The term 'white pollution' refers to the contamination caused by dumping of plastic products such as PET bottles and burning of styrofoam products such as disposable lunch boxes. In China, a mandate was handed down from the State Council to eliminate 'white pollution.' It was held in October 1999 that the production and use of disposable plastic returnable containers would be prohibited in 2000. China is the world's fourth-largest plastic product producing country. Source: People's Daily International Edition, Oct. 18, 1999.
13. "Chinese cities to curb 'white pollution'". People's Daily (English edition). 16 November 2000. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
14. "爱山环保日活动挑战"白色污染" (Aishan Ecology Day activities set to battle 'white pollution')" (in Chinese). People's Daily. 16 March 2002. Retrieved 24 November 2021.
15. Chen, Zhiyong (21 January 2006). "Finding solutions to 'white pollution'". People's Daily (English edition). Retrieved 24 November 2021. But despite their handiness, the plastic bags and foam plastic food containers have been associated with 'white pollution,' because they are non-degradable.
16. Harrell, Stevan; Hinckley, Thomas M.; Li, Xingxing; Ho, Joanne; Warren, Kayanna; Nadal, Ross T. "Historical ecological change in the upper Baiwu Valley (白乌溪流域的历代生态变迁)" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
17. BONN. "Urgent Need to Prepare Developing Countries for Surge in E-wastes." UN University, 22 February 2010. Web. 22 December 2015.
18. Mitch Moxley, "E-Waste Hits China", Inter Press Service, 2011 http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=56572 Archived 14 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine
19. Dasgupta, Susmita; Hua Wang; Wheeler, David (30 November 1997). Surviving success: policy reform and the future of industrial pollution in China, Volume 1 (PDF) (Report). The World Bank. p. 2. Archived from the original on 16 April 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2024.
20. Kahn, Joseph; Jim Yardley (26 August 2007). "As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
21. See Air pollution at the 2008 Summer Olympics. A similar approach was used for other events such as the 2015 China Victory Day Parade and the 2016 G20 Hangzhou summit.
22. "China 'buried smog death finding'". BBC. 3 July 2007.
23. Wassermann, Rogerio (2 April 2009). "Can China be green by 2020?". BBC.
24. Vennemo, H.; Adnan, K.; Lindhjem, H.; Seip, H. M. (2009). "Environmental Pollution in China: Status and Trends". Review of Environmental Economics and Policy. 3 (2): 209. doi:10.1093/reep/rep009. S2CID 4654754.
25. Kumar, Prashant; Morawska, Lidia; Martani, Claudio; Biskos, George; Neophytou, Marina; Di Sabatino, Silvana; Bell, Margaret; Norford, Leslie; Britter, Rex (1 February 2015). "The rise of low-cost sensing for managing air pollution in cities". Environment International. 75: 199–205. Bibcode:2015EnInt..75..199K. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2014.11.019. hdl:11585/522801. PMID 25483836. S2CID 17860920.
26. Matus, K.; Nam K.; Selin, N.; Lamsal, L.; Reilly, J.; Paltsev, S. (2012) Health damages from air pollution in China. Global Environment Change. | pp. 55–66 |
27. Xie, Yongming (1992). "An Overview of Water, Water Pollution and Control in China". Environmental Management and Health. 3 (2): 18. doi:10.1108/09566169210013966. ProQuest 204532250.
28. Tim Flannery, Atmosphere of Hope. Solutions to the Climate Crisis, Penguin Books, 2015, pages 28 (ISBN 9780141981048). This sentence of the book has a note citing the reference: Yuyu Chen et al., "Evidence on the impact of sustained exposure to air pollution on life expectancy from China's Huai River policy", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, volume 110, number 32, 6 August 2013, pages 12936-12941.
29. Chen, Zhengjie; Wang, Feng; Liu, Beibei; Zhang, Bing (2022). "Short-Term and Long-Term Impacts of Air Pollution Control on China's Economy". Environmental Management. 70 (3): 536–547. Bibcode:2022EnMan..70..536C. doi:10.1007/s00267-022-01664-1. ISSN 0364-152X. PMID 35612624. S2CID 249045935.
30. "84 cities met the national standard of air quality in 2016, 11 more compared to last year".
31. "China's air quality improves in 2018 – Xinhua | English.news.cn". www.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
32. "China Reduced Air Pollution in 7 Years as Much as US Did in Three Decades". Bloomberg.com. 14 June 2022. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
33. "PM2.5 in Beijing down 54%, but nationwide air quality improvements slow as coal use increases | Greenpeace East Asia". m.greenpeace.org. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
34. Analysis by James Griffiths (11 July 2019). "China has made major progress on air pollution. Wuhan protests show there's still a long way to go". CNN. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
35. Zhao, Bin; Zheng, Haotian; Wang, Shuxiao; Smith, Kirk R.; Lu, Xi; Aunan, Kristin; Gu, Yu; Wang, Yuan; Ding, Dian; Xing, Jia; Fu, Xiao (4 December 2018). "Change in household fuels dominates the decrease in PM2.5 exposure and premature mortality in China in 2005–2015". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (49): 12401–12406. Bibcode:2018PNAS..11512401Z. doi:10.1073/pnas.1812955115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6298076. PMID 30455309.
36. "PM 2.5 in Beijing drops to record low in August". www.ecns.cn. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
37. "Beijing to exit 200 most polluted cities list". phys.org. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
38. An, Zhisheng; Huang, Ru-Jin; Zhang, Renyi; Tie, Xuexi; Li, Guohui; Cao, Junji; Zhou, Weijian; Shi, Zhengguo; Han, Yongming; Gu, Zhaolin; Ji, Yuemeng (30 April 2019). "Severe haze in northern China: A synergy of anthropogenic emissions and atmospheric processes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (18): 8657–8666. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.8657A. doi:10.1073/pnas.1900125116. PMC 6500134. PMID 30988177.
39. Murtaugh, Dan. "China Is Winning Its War on Air Pollution, at Least in Beijing". Bloomberg.
40. Yu, Katrina (18 December 2018). "The Good News (And Not So Good News) About China's Smoggy Air". NPR.org. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
41. "Huge China Reforestation Campaign Kicks into High Gear". CleanTechnica. 6 January 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
42. "Top 10 Countries Selling Most Electric Cars: Norway's Highest Density to China's Top Production". news18.com. Retrieved 29 August 2021.
43. Wu, Shugang; Zhou, Weijian; Xiong, Xiaohu; Burr, G.S.; Cheng, Peng; Wang, Peng; Niu, Zhenchuan; Hou, Yaoyao (June 2021). "The impact of COVID-19 lockdown on atmospheric CO2 in Xi'an, China". Environmental Research. 197: 111208. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.111208. PMC 8061636. PMID 33895110.
44. Asmelash, Leah (16 March 2021). "Satellite images show air pollution returning to pre-pandemic levels as restrictions loosen". CNN. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
45. "China reports air quality progress from 2013 to 2018". www.ecns.cn. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
46. Watts, Jonathan (16 March 2012). "Air pollution could become China's biggest health threat, expert warns". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
47. Wong, Edward (3 April 2013). "2 Major Air Pollutants Increase in Beijing". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
48. Li, Lei; Li, Hong; Zhang, Xinmin; Wang, Li; Xu, Linghong; Wang, Xuezhong; Yu, Yanting; Zhang, Yujie; Cao, Guan (January 2014). "Pollution characteristics and health risk assessment of benzene homologues in ambient air in the northeastern urban area of Beijing, China". Journal of Environmental Sciences. 26 (1): 214–223. Bibcode:2014JEnvS..26..214L. doi:10.1016/s1001-0742(13)60400-3. ISSN 1001-0742. PMID 24649709.
49. Kaiman, Jonathan (16 February 2013). "Chinese struggle through 'airpocalypse' smog". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
50. Lu, Z.; Streets, D. G.; Zhang, Q.; Wang, S.; Carmichael, G. R.; Cheng, Y. F.; Wei, C.; Chin, M.; Diehl, T.; Tan, Q. (2010). "Sulfur dioxide emissions in China and sulfur trends in East Asia since 2000". Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 10 (13): 6311. Bibcode:2010ACP....10.6311L. doi:10.5194/acp-10-6311-2010.
51. "Pollution makes cancer the top killer". Xie Chuanjiao (China Daily). 21 May 2007. Archived from the original on 23 May 2007.
52. Kroll, Jesse H.; Seinfeld, John H. (1 May 2008). "Chemistry of secondary organic aerosol: Formation and evolution of low-volatility organics in the atmosphere". Atmospheric Environment. 42 (16): 3593–3624. Bibcode:2008AtmEn..42.3593K. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.01.003.
53. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 December 2016. Retrieved 3 February 2018.
54. EPA, ORD, US (16 September 2014). "Secondary Organic Aerosol (SOAs) Research". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
55. Huang, Ru-Jin; Zhang, Yanlin; Bozzetti, Carlo; Ho, Kin-Fai; Cao, Jun-Ji; Han, Yongming; Daellenbach, Kaspar R.; Slowik, Jay G.; Platt, Stephen M. (2014). "High secondary aerosol contribution to particulate pollution during haze events in China" (PDF). Nature. 514 (7521): 218–222. Bibcode:2014Natur.514..218H. doi:10.1038/nature13774. PMID 25231863. S2CID 205240719.
56. "PM2.5". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 29 January 2013. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
57. "2007 World Development Indicators: Air Pollution." Table 3.13.. World Bank (2007). Washington, DC.
58. "Ministry of Environmental Protection The People's Republic of China".
59. Hennock, Mary (1 March 2012). "China combats air pollution with tough monitoring rules". The Guardian.
60. "US Embassy Accidentally Calls Beijing's Pollution 'Crazy Bad'". Techdirt. 23 November 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
61. "Beijing's polluted air defies standard measure". Ctv.ca. 26 February 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
62. Barbara Demick (29 October 2011). "U.S. Embassy air quality data undercut China's own assessments". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 1 November 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
63. "Pollution in Beijing Reach Beyond Index Levels". 2ndgreenrevolution.com. 13 December 2011. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
64. "Foreign embassies' air data issuing inaccurate, unlawful: official". Xinhua, 5 June 2012
65. "Beijing, China Air Pollution Hits Hazardous Levels". Huffingtonpost.com. 12 January 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
66. "BBC News – Beijing air pollution soars to hazard level". BBC. 12 January 2013. Retrieved 21 January 2013.
67. "China: record smog levels shut down city of Harbin | euronews, world news". Euronews.com. 21 October 2013. Archived from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 21 October 2013.
68. "Air Quality in China". Shanghai Health and Safety. Retrieved 17 June 2022.
69. Lin, Y.; Zou, J.; Yang, W.; Li, C. Q. (2018). "A Review of Recent Advances in Research on PM2.5 in China". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 (3): 438. doi:10.3390/ijerph15030438. PMC 5876983. PMID 29498704.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
70. "Blackest day". The Economist. 14 January 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
71. Lewis, Joanna I. (2023). Cooperating for the Climate: Learning from International Partnerships in China's Clean Energy Sector. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54482-5.
72. Andrews-Speed, Philip (November 2014). "China's Energy Policymaking Processes and Their Consequences". The National Bureau of Asian Research Energy Security Report. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
73. Usman W. Chohan (May 2014). "An Eco-friendly Exodus: Heavy Industry in Beijing 环保政策". McGill University Economic Publications.
74. Stanway, D (6 November 2013). "China cuts gas supply to industry as shortages hit". Reuters.
75. 汤金兰. "《大气污染防治行动计划》实施情况中期评估报告". www.mep.gov.cn. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
76. "GDP growth (annual %) | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
77. "Ambient air quality standards".
78. Boren, Zachary Davies (27 August 2015). "China air pollution: Beijing records its cleanest air ever". Retrieved 29 August 2015.
79. Crane, Keith; Mao, Zhimin (1 January 2015). "Costs of Selected Policies to Address Air Pollution in China". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
80. "China to Unify Color-coded Pollution Alert System". China Radio International. 3 December 2014. Archived from the original on 29 March 2015.
81. "Beijing raises 'red alert' threshold for air pollution warning". The Guardian. 21 February 2016.
82. "环保部：京津冀6城统一重污染预警分级". 新华网. 5 February 2016.
83. Han, Pengpeng; et al. (2014). "Monitoring Trends in Light Pollution in China Based on Nighttime Satellite Imagery". Remote Sensing. 6 (12): 5541–5542. Bibcode:2014RemS....6.5541H. doi:10.3390/rs6065541. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
84. LaFraniere, Sharon (15 June 2011). "Lead Poisoning in China: The Hidden Scourge". The New York Times.
85. He, K.; Wang, S.; Zhang, J. (2009). "Blood lead levels of children and its trend in China". Science of the Total Environment. 407 (13): 3986–3993. Bibcode:2009ScTEn.407.3986H. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.03.018. PMID 19395068. paid 19395068.
86. "The People's Republic of China: National Implementation Plan for the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants" (PDF). Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. 2007.
87. "Swimming in Poison: A hazardous chemical cocktail found in Yangtze River Fish". Greenpeace China. 26 August 2010.
88. Wang Ying. "Operation blitzkrieg against desert storm". China Daily. Archived from the original on 10 April 2007. Retrieved 3 April 2007.
89. "Ill Winds". Science News Online. Archived from the original on 19 March 2004. Retrieved 6 October 2001.
90. Chan, C. K., & Yao, X. (1 January 2008). Air pollution in megacities in China. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 1, 1–42.
91. Chen, Yuyu (2013). "Impact of Sustained Exposure to Air Pollution on Life Expectancy from China's Huai River Policy". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (32): 12936–12941. doi:10.1073/pnas.1300018110. PMC 3740827. PMID 23836630.
92. "N-hexane Poisoning Scare at Apple Supplier in China". China Tech News. 22 February 2010.
93. China to Survey Soil Amid Fears Over Rice, Wall Street Journal, 12 June 2013.
94. Sun Xiaohua (2007) "Call for return to green accounting", "China Daily", 19 April 2007.
95. Cost of Pollution in China Economic Estimates of Physical Costs. 2007. World Bank. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPREGTOPENVIRONMENT/Resources/China_Cost_of_Pollution.pdf
96. Polluting China for the sake of economic growth. 27 April 2012. EurekAlert!. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2012-04/ip-pcf042712.php
97. "Air pollution in Northern China cuts life expectancy by 5.5 years". WebMD China. 12 August 2013.
98. "Air pollution in China is killing 4,000 people every day, a new study finds". The Guardian. Associated Press. 13 August 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
99. Wang, Hai; Zheng, Xiao-Tong; Cai, Wenju; Han, Zi-Wen; Xie, Shang-Ping; Kang, Sarah M.; Geng, Yu-Fan; Liu, Fukai; Wang, Chuan-Yang; Wu, Yue; Xiang, Baoqiang; Zhou, Lei (21 May 2024). "Atmosphere teleconnections from abatement of China aerosol emissions exacerbate Northeast Pacific warm blob events". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 121 (21): e2313797121. Bibcode:2024PNAS..12113797W. doi:10.1073/pnas.2313797121. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 11126963. PMID 38709948.
100. Allen, Michael. "Birthing the Blob". Hakai Magazine. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
101. "Report on the State of the Ecology and Environment in China 2019" (PDF). Ministry of Ecology and Environment. 15 December 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
102. "WEATHER & EXTREME EVENTS 7 of 10 Most Air-Polluted Cities Are in China". 16 January 2013. Imaginechina/Corbis. http://news.discovery.com. Retrieved 1 September 2014. {{cite news}}: External link in |agency= (help)
103. "Global markets and material price updates". complydirect.com. Retrieved 1 May 2020.
104. "China's waste ban is a mess for Australia". INTHEBLACK. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
105. Earley, Katharine (27 August 2013). "Could China's 'green fence' prompt a global recycling innovation?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 20 January 2024.
106. "Recycling is going to waste!". atlanticcouncil.org. 28 August 2019. Retrieved 1 May 2020.

Further reading

• Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 (ISBN 9780241958681). See chapter 12 entitled "China, Lurching Giant" (pages 258–377).

External links

• Most polluted cities in China
• Clearing the Air: China's Environmental Challenge – Asia Society Archived 22 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine – Overview on China air pollution problem