Philippe François Marie Leclerc de Hauteclocque[b][c] (22 November 1902 – 28 November 1947) was a Free-French general during the Second World War. He became Marshal of France posthumously in 1952, and is known in France simply as le maréchal Leclerc or just Leclerc.
During the Second World War he fought in the Battle of France. He was one of the first who defied his government's Armistice to make his way to Britain to fight with the Free French under General Charles de Gaulle, adopting the nom de guerre of Leclerc so that his wife and children would not be put at risk if his name appeared in the papers. He was sent to French Equatorial Africa, where he rallied local leaders to the rebel Free French cause, and led a force against Gabon, whose leaders supported the French Government. From Chad he led raids into Italian Libya. After his forces captured Kufra, he had his men swear an oath known today as the Serment de Koufra, in which they pledged to fight on until their flag flew over the Strasbourg Cathedral. The forces under his command, known as L Force, campaigned in Libya in 1943, covered the Eighth Army's inland flank during its advance into Tunisia, and participated in the attack on the Mareth Line. L Force was then transformed into the 2e Division Blindée, although it was often referred to as La Division Leclerc. It fought under Leclerc's command in the Battle of Normandy, and participated in the liberation of Paris and Strasbourg.
Philippe François Marie de Hauteclocque was born on 22 November 1902 at Belloy-Saint-Léonard in the department of Somme, France. He was the fifth of six children of Adrien de Hauteclocque, comte de Hauteclocque (1864–1945), and Marie-Thérèse van der Cruisse de Waziers (1870–1956). Philippe was named in honour of an ancestor killed by Croatian soldiers in service of Habsburg monarchy during Thirty Years' War in 1635.[8]
Gustave, in turn, had three sons. The first, Henry (1862–1914), and third, Wallerand (1866–1914), became officers in the French Army, serving during the colonial campaigns, including fighting Samory in the Sudan. Both were killed in the early fighting of the First World War. The second son was Adrien, who enlisted in August 1914 as a trooper in the 11e Régiment de Chasseurs à Cheval [fr], the regiment in which his son Guy was a cornet. Adrien was later commissioned, and was twice awarded the Croix de Guerre for gallantry. He survived the war, and inherited the family title and estate in Belloy-Saint-Léonard.[8][9]
Hauteclocque's older brother Guy had married Madeleine de Gargan, the daughter of the Baron de Gargan. Philippe became a frequent visitor to the Gargan household, and became enchanted by Madeleine's youngest sister Thérèse. The two courted while he was at Saint-Cyr. In the tradition of old noble families, Count Adrien asked Baron de Gargan for permission for Philippe to marry Thérèse. The wedding ceremony took place in the Church of St Joan of Arc in Rouen on 10 August 1925. For a wedding present, Adrien gave them a chateau in Tailly. They had six children:[12][13] Henri (1926–1952), who was killed in the First Indochina War;[14] Hubert (1927–), who served as mayor of Tailly from 2001 to 2008; Charles (1929–); Jeanne (1931–); Michel (1933–2014); and Bénédicte (1936–).[15] Philippe and Thérèse hired an Austrian governess, and spoke German in front of their children to improve their command of the language.[16]
In February 1931, Hauteclocque went back to Saint-Cyr as an instructor, but wanted to return to active service. During the summer break in 1933, he flew south to Africa, where he reported to Général de brigadeHenri Giraud on 11 July. Giraud sent him into the field as a liaison officer with a goum. He was awarded the croix de guerre des théâtres d'opérations extérieures for leading goumiers in an attack on caves and ravines on Bou Amdoun on 11 August.[20] The Commander in Chief in Morocco, Général de divisionAntoine Huré, felt that Hauteclocque should not have been there, and held the award up for three years. Others felt differently, and Hauteclocque was given early admission to the course for promotion to capitaine. He placed fourth in the class, and was promoted on 25 December 1934.[18][21] Promotion was slow in the inter-war French Army, especially in the cavalry, and he was only the second in his Saint-Cyr class to reach that rank. Most had to wait until 1936.[22] He was also made a Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur.[1]
Although they were devout Catholics, Hauteclocque and Thérèse subscribed to Action Française, the journal of a far-right political organisation of the same name, despite a papal interdict against it, and continued to do so even after Thérèse was refused absolution.[23] In contrast, his cousin Xavier de Hauteclocque [fr] was an award-winning journalist who covered the rise of the Nazi Party in Germany, visited the concentration camp at Dachau, and wrote about the Night of Long Knives. Xavier died in April 1935, convinced that he had been poisoned by the Nazis.[24] After the Second World War, Hauteclocque destroyed his copies of Action Française.[25]
Hauteclocque broke his leg in two places in a fall from his horse in 1936. He told his company that it was his own fault for riding on the shoulder of the road. Thereafter he frequently walked with a cane. After another mishap involving losing his way during a tactical exercise and getting stuck in a field cordoned off with barbed wire, he told them that when you have done something really stupid, it is best to admit it.[26][22]
In November 1938, Hauteclocque entered the École supérieure de guerre, the French Army's staff college, as part of its 60th class. On graduating in July 1939, he was ordered to report to the 4e Division d'Infanterie [fr] (4e DI) as its chief of staff.[27]
On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. The 4e DI was ordered to hold the line of the Sambre river. Hauteclocque was placed in charge of three infantry battalions. To his dismay, orders came to pull back to the Canal de l'Escaut. From there the 4e DI retreated northward, becoming encircled in the Lille pocket on 28 May. Hauteclocque received permission to escape through German lines.[28] He attempted to make his way back to the French lines by pretending to be a civilian refugee, but was apprehended by a German patrol and taken prisoner when they discovered an old military pay receipt. He was taken back to a German command post, where he secretly destroyed the receipt. He convinced a German colonel that he had been wounded in Morocco, suffered from malaria, and had six children, all of which was true, and he was thus exempted from military service, which was false. The Germans let him go. He then made his way to the Crozat Canal, swam across, and encountered a French patrol.[29]
A Char B1 tank. French tanks were usually given names by their crews.
Hauteclocque reported to the headquarters of Général d'arméeAubert Frère [fr], the commander of the Seventh Army, who gave him permission to visit his home at Tailly, which was still behind French lines. When he got there, however, he found that Thérèse had fled to Sainte-Foy-la-Grande in the southwest of France, where she had relatives. On returning to the Seventh Army, he was ordered to join the 2ème groupement cuirassé, a scratch force of armoured and mechanised units that included Brigadier GeneralStanisław Maczek's Polish 10th Armoured Cavalry Brigade. The groupement launched a series of counter-attacks. Lacking a radio, Hauteclocque gave directions to the Char B1 tanks with his cane.[30] On 15 June, he was wounded in the head during a German air attack, and was taken to a hospital in a convent in Avallon. There he was again taken prisoner when the area was overrun by the Germans.[31]
This time, Hauteclocque escaped by jumping out a window.[32] After the armistice was signed on 22 June, French soldiers who had not been captured were simply allowed to go home, and the Germans were friendly towards Hauteclocque, especially when they discovered that he spoke fluent German. He made his way to rejoin his family by car and bicycle. So that he could cross from the zone occupée into the zone libre where Thérèse and the children were, his sister Yvonne obtained an identity card for him in the name of "Leclerc". It was his first use of this name. He also told Yvonne that he intended to join Général de brigadeCharles de Gaulle in Britain. He was reunited with his family in Saint-Germain-les-Vergnes on 30 June but stayed with them for only four days before setting out for Spain.[33] He managed to obtain a visa on the second attempt, being refused the first time for carrying too much money with him. Once in Spain he took a train to Madrid, and then to Lisbon, where he went to the British embassy, which arranged his passage to Britain on a merchant ship, the SS Hillary.[34]
Africa
Leclerc arrived in London on 25 July 1940, and met with de Gaulle, who announced that he was promoting him to Chef d'escadrons (major). He also encountered his cousin Pierre de Hauteclocque, Xavier's brother, who was serving with the 13e Demi-Brigade de Légion Étrangère (13e DBLE, an infantry regiment of the French Foreign Legion). This was the largest unit that had joined the Free French Forces. After participating in the Battles of Narvik, it had found itself in Britain when France surrendered. Formed after the war began, it contained many men who had fought for the Republican cause in the Spanish Civil War, and many refugees from Nazi and Fascist countries. Leclerc then offered his own services to the unit, but its commander, ColonelRaoul Magrin-Vernerey, rejected his offer on the grounds that he was high-born, over-qualified and a cavalryman.[35]
Instead, in August 1940, de Gaulle ordered Leclerc to French Equatorial Africa, where the local leaders had declared themselves for Free France, as the governor of French Cameroon.[36] At this time he adopted Leclerc as his nom de guerre, so that Thérèse and their children would not be put at risk if his name appeared in the papers.[37] He quickly secured the Free French grip on Cameroon. He then led a force consisting of the 13e DBLE and Senegalese Tirailleurs against Gabon, whose local leader supported Vichy France. The Battle of Gabon lasted from 12 October to 12 November 1940, and ended with 20 dead and Gabon in Free French hands. Vichy prisoners were held as hostages in case Vichy France tried to retaliate against the families of Free Frenchmen. When Louis-Michel-François Tardy, the Bishop of Libreville, refused to conduct a mass to celebrate the victory, Leclerc had him arrested.[38]Capitaine de corvetteGeorges Thierry d'Argenlieu conducted the service in his capacity as a Carmelite priest.[39]
Serment de Koufra, plaque in Strasbourg
With Gabon in hand, de Gaulle sent Leclerc to Chad, the only Free French territory that shared a border with territory controlled by Axis Powers, along its Sahara Desert border with Italian-controlled Libya. Leclerc's attention was drawn to two Italian outposts in the desert, Murzuk in southwestern Libya and Kufra in the southeast. Both were over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) from his base at Fort Lamy in Chad. He started with a small raid on Murzuk by eleven men of the Régiment de Tirailleurs Sénégalais du Tchad (RTST) and two troops of the British Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) on 11 January 1941. In February, he led a much larger operation that captured Kufra.[40] After the battle, he had his men swear an oath known today as the Serment de Koufra ("Oath of Kufra"):
You shall not lay down arms, until the day when our colours, our beautiful colours, flutter over the Strasbourg Cathedral.[41]
Leclerc learnt a great deal about how to handle and supply a force advancing across the desert, and was rewarded with the British Distinguished Service Order.[42] He began planning a far more ambitious advance into Libya. This was delayed by a year due to GeneralfeldmarschallErwin Rommel's defeat of the British Eighth Army in the Battle of Gazala, and the subsequent German and Italian advance into Egypt.[43] Leclerc was promoted to Général de brigade in August 1941, and pinned two metal stars captured from the Italians on his kepi.[44]
De Gaulle ordered the plan for an advance into Libya to be put in motion in the wake of the Eighth Army's victory in the Second Battle of El Alamein in November 1942. Leclerc set out from Fort Lamy on 16 December 1942 with 500 European and 2,700 African troops in 350 vehicles. He captured Sebha on 12 January 1943, and Mizdah on 22 January. He reached Tripoli on 26 January, where he was greeted by the Eighth Army's commander, GeneralBernard Montgomery. Leclerc's command, now reinforced by the Greek Sacred Squadron, and known as L Force, covered the Eighth Army's inland flank during its advance into Tunisia. L Force beat off a German counterattack on 10 March, and participated in the attack on the Mareth Line.[43]
After the fighting in North Africa ended, Leclerc's L Force, now about 4,000 strong, became the 2e Division Française Libre (2e DFL). In June 1943, de Gaulle informed him the 2e DFL would be re-equipped by the Americans as an armoured division, the 2e Division Blindée (2e DB). It was often called La Division Leclerc. Although organised along American lines, its units had French titles. The non-white units were transferred elsewhere. The remainder of 2e DFL became the Regiment de Marche du Tchad (RMT), 2e DB's motorised infantry regiment. Free French armoured units serving with the Eighth Army became the 501e Régiment de chars de combat (501e RCC). The artillery and the other two armoured regiments of 2e DB, the 12e Régiment de Cuirassiers (12e RC) and the 12e Régiment de Chasseurs d'Afrique [fr] (12e RCA), were drawn from the Vichy Armée d'Afrique.[36][45] Perhaps the most unusual unit in the division was the Régiment Blindé de Fusiliers-Marins (RBFM), sailors who served as a tank destroyer regiment.[46][47] Leclerc had to weld the various units, some of whom had recently been fighting against the Allies, into a team. This was no easy task. When two men from the 501e RCC upset a former Vichy officer by singing a disrespectful song about Général d'armée Henri Giraud, resulting in a fight, he told the officer concerned that respect had to be earned.[48]
General Leclerc talks to his men from the 501e RCC
The next assignment for 2e DB, and the one that it had been brought from Africa for, was the liberation of Paris. Allied troops initially avoided the historic city, moving around it to minimise the danger of destruction if the Germans sought to defend it. When Parisians rose against the Germans, de Gaulle and Leclerc persuaded GeneralDwight D. Eisenhower to help.[55] Leclerc's men had to fight their way into Paris, and when they got there they found German infantry and tanks still holding parts of the city.[56] The German commander, General der InfanterieDietrich von Choltitz, was inclined to surrender, and did so to Leclerc and Henri Rol-Tanguy of the French Forces of the Interior at the Gare Montparnasse on 25 August 1944. Leclerc arranged for EnsignPhilippe de Gaulle, who was serving in the RBFM, to be in attendance, but the elder de Gaulle was annoyed that Leclerc had allowed the communist Rol to co-sign the surrender.[57] The next day de Gaulle held a triumphal parade, accompanied by senior military figures including Leclerc, Alphonse Juin, Marie-Pierre Kœnig and Georges Thierry d'Argenlieu.[58]
Crowds of French patriots line the Champs Elysees to view Free French tanks and half tracks of Leclerc's 2e DB pass through the Arc du Triomphe on 26 August 1944, after Paris was liberated.
Montgomery's troops liberated Tailly, allowing Leclerc to return home to see Thérèse and the children again on 6 September 1944. His oldest sons, Henri and Hubert, now 18 and 17 years old respectively, lied about their ages to volunteer for service with 2e DB. Henri went on to serve with the RMT, while Hubert became a Sherman tank gunner with the 12e RCA. Other relatives also served with the division, including two nephews. The fighting in Paris cost 2e DB 97 killed and 238 wounded; nearly twice that number were lost in the fighting in surrounding areas. These were replaced by men and women who, like Leclerc's sons, offered themselves at a recruitment office the 2e DB established near the Bois de Boulogne.[59]
After Paris, 2e DB returned to XV Corps at Leclerc's request.[60] He won a notable victory on 12–16 September 1944 at the Battle of Dompaire against the Panzer IVs and Panther tanks of the German 112th Panzer Brigade by using manoeuvre and air power to compensate for the numerical and technical inferiority of his tanks. American historian Hugh M. Cole wrote that "this fight, characterised warmly by the XV Corps commander as a 'brilliant example' of perfect air-ground co-ordination, not only was an outstanding feat of arms but also dealt a crippling blow to Hitler's plans for an armoured thrust into the Third Army flank."[61]
General de Gaulle with Leclerc (centre) and other French officers at Montparnasse railway station in Paris, 25 August 1944
Patton personally pinned a Silver Star on Leclerc, and brought with him another six Silver Stars and 25 Bronze Star Medals for other members of the 2e DB. Patton then gave Leclerc his next objective: the town of Baccarat and the bridge there over the Meurthe River.[62] The bridge was captured before the Germans could destroy it.[63] Haislip's XV Corps was transferred to the Seventh United States Army on 29 September,[64] and Leclerc feared that 2e DB would be transferred to Général d'arméeJean de Lattre de Tassigny's French First Army. Leclerc regarded the First Army as being full of traitors who had supported Vichy France. Moreover, de Lattre had sacked Général de divisionEdgard de Larminat for Gaullist sentiments, and Leclerc had good reason to fear that he might meet a similar fate.[60]
On 22 November, Haislip gave Leclerc permission to advance on Strasbourg. Leclerc surprised the Germans by advancing over country roads and tracks to bypass their defences. Strasbourg was reached on 25 November,[65] and that afternoon the Tricolour flew over the Strasbourg Cathedral. The German offensive in the Ardennes in December and in Alsace in January led Eisenhower to consider abandoning Strasbourg, but strong opposition to the idea from the French caused him to back down. As a result, the 2e DB was transferred to de Lattre's command to assist in the reduction of the Colmar Pocket.[63]
Leclerc objected to the use of his troops in the attack on Royan in April 1945. As a result, only part of 2e DB was employed.[66] The division rejoined Seventh Army, crossing the Rhine on 25 April, and joining the pursuit into Bavaria. Leclerc visited Dachau concentration camp after its liberation by the Americans.[67] In an incident that took place on 8 May 1945 at Karlstein near Bad Reichenhall in Bavaria, he was presented with a defiant group of a dozen captured Frenchmen of the SS Charlemagne Division. He asked them why they wore a German uniform, to which one of them replied by asking why Leclerc wore an American one. Leclerc told his men to get rid of them. That was taken as a death sentence. The group of French Waffen-SS men was summarily executed by the RMT without any form of military tribunal procedure, and their bodies left where they fell until an American burial team collected them three days later.[68][69] On 2 June 1949 the bodies were exhumed and buried in the St. Zeno cemetery in Bad Reichenhall. For his services leading the 2e DB, Leclerc was awarded the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour.[70]
Although he had never before served in the Far East, as CEFEO commander, Leclerc was charged with recovering French Indochina. This territory, comprising the present day states of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, had been conquered by the French during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Vichy regime had allowed the Japanese to use Indochina as a base from which to attack the Allies in Malaya, Burma and China. On 9 March 1945, the Japanese had deposed the French colonial government, taken direct control of Indochina, defeated the French army in several engagements, and imprisoned surviving French soldiers.[71]
Tokyo Bay, Japan. Surrender of the Japanese aboard USS Missouri (BB-63). Leclerc representing France signs the instrument of surrender. Other French representatives stand behind him while General Douglas MacArthur, Supreme Allied Commander, stands at the microphone.
With the end of the war, Indochina was divided in two, with the area north of the 16th parallel occupied by 150,000 Nationalist Chinese troops, while the part to the south was occupied by 20,000 British and Indian troops of Major GeneralDouglas Gracey's 20th Infantry Division. Meanwhile, the Vietnamese nationalist leader Ho Chi Minh had declared Vietnamese independence. Leclerc arrived in Saigon with a first contingent of French soldiers on 5 October 1945. He was dependent on the British for equipment and shipping.[72] He did not get along well with D'Argenlieu, whom de Gaulle had appointed French High Commissioner for Indochina.[73]
Leclerc heeded the advice he was given by United States General of the ArmyDouglas MacArthur to bring as many soldiers as possible.[74] He broke the Vietminh blockade around Saigon, then drove through the Mekong delta and up into the Central Highlands. This was possible because Ho feared Chinese domination far more than French colonialism, which he perceived to be in decline. Ho's first priority was getting rid of the Chinese, and for this he needed French help.[75] Leclerc quickly perceived the necessity for a political solution to the conflict.[76]
The French government negotiator Jean Sainteny flew to Saigon to consult Leclerc, who was acting as high commissioner in the absence of d'Argenlieu. Leclerc approved Sainteny's proposal to negotiate with Ho because he preferred a diplomatic solution to a larger conflict, but he still dispatched a flotilla with shiploads of French soldiers to northern Vietnam ready to attack if the talks failed. At that time, Ho felt that negotiations with the French constituted his best option because the Soviet Union had not yet endorsed the Vietminh or the Vietnamese nationalist party (VNQDD), and the French Communist Party chose to support French rule in Vietnam.[77]
On 6 March 1946, a tentative agreement was reached at the last minute (with Leclerc's fleet already in the Gulf of Tonkin) between Sainteny and Ho. The agreement stated that France would recognise Vietnam as a free state within the French Union, a new name for the French empire broadly similar to the British Commonwealth, and that Ho would allow France to base 25,000 soldiers in Vietnam for five years.[78] The Ho-Sainteny agreement was never confirmed because it disappointed people on both sides. Ho's immense prestige largely silenced Vietnamese dissent, but the agreement caused a serious split within the French side. French businessmen, planters, and officials in Saigon were "indignant at the prospect of losing their colonial privileges."[79]
D'Argenlieu bluntly denounced Leclerc. "I am amazed – yes, that is the word, amazed", he said, "that France's fine expeditionary corps in Indochina is commanded by officers who would rather negotiate than fight".[78] D'Argenlieu stated that a higher level meeting in Paris would be required. He then unilaterally declared a French-controlled Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina without asking either Paris or the Vietnamese.[77] In July 1946, Leclerc was replaced as commander of the French forces by Jean-Étienne Valluy.[80] At the time many French and American politicians were willing to believe that Ho was part of a Soviet plan to dominate the world, but Leclerc warned that "anti-communism will be a useless tool unless the problem of nationalism is resolved."[81] His advice was simple: "Negotiate at all costs!"[82]
Death
Fragment of a lamp from the crash of Leclerc's B-25 Mitchell.
Leclerc was appointed Inspector of Land Forces in North Africa. On 28 November 1947, his North American B-25 Mitchell, Tailly II, carrying Leclerc and his staff, crashed [fr] near Colomb-Béchar in French Algeria, killing everyone on board. His body was returned to France, where it was taken to Paris along the route that 2e DB had followed in August 1944. A funeral service was held at Notre Dame de Paris, and he was interred in a crypt at Les Invalides.[83][84][85][86]
Posthumous honours
Leclerc was posthumously created a Marshal of France on 23 August 1952, the anniversary of the day that 2e DB had entered Paris.[21] Today his marshal's baton is displayed in the Leclerc room of the Musée de l'Armée at Invalides,[87] as is his battered képi with the Italian stars that he wore at Kufra.[88]
The Leclerc tank built by GIAT Industries (Groupement Industriel des Armements Terrestres) of France is named after him.[89] There is a monument to Leclerc in the Petit-Montrouge quarter of the 14th arrondissement in Paris, between Avenue de la Porte d'Orléans and Rue de la Légion Étrangère, and near the Square du Serment-de-Koufra.[90][91] Two streets in Paris are named for him: Avenue du Général Leclerc in the 14th arrondissement[92] and Rue du Maréchal Leclerc in the 12th arrondissement, between the Bois de Vincennes and the Marne River.[93]
For his promotion to Companion of the National Order of Liberation:
Leader of the highest value, admirable in zeal and energy. Wounded during the Battle of France, escaped from the hands of the enemy and joined the Free French Forces; Took a decisive part in the rally of Cameroon, which he then knew, as governor, to organize for the war, and in the liberation of Gabon; Commander of the troops of Chad, prepared and beautifully conducted the victorious operations of Murzuk and Kufra, which brought glory back under the folds of the flag.
During a glorious epic, which belongs to history, showed that the French flag always knew how to spread as a victor wherever the sacred cause of the homeland called it.
^"Rue du Maréchal Leclerc". Extrait de la nomenclature officielle des voies de Paris. Archived from the original on 23 March 2007. Retrieved 2 July 2006.
Clarke, Jeffrey J.; Smith, Robert Ross (1993). Riviera to the Rhine(PDF). The United States Army in World War II: The European Theater of Operations. Washington, DC: Center of Military History. OCLC23464248. Archived from the original(PDF) on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 25 May 2014.
Cole, Hugh M. (1950). The Lorraine Campaign(PDF). The United States Army in World War II: The European Theater of Operations. Washington, DC: Center of Military History. OCLC1253758. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 25 May 2014.
Logevall, Frederic (2012). Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam. New York: Random House. ISBN978-0-37550-442-6.
Moore, William Mortimer (2011). Free France's Lion: The Life of Philippe Leclerc, De Gaulle's Greatest General. Newbury, Nerkshire: Casemate Publishers. ISBN978-1-61200-068-8. OCLC721889914.
Puchalski, Zbigniew (2000). Dzieje polskich znaków zaszczytnych [History of Polish Decorations] (in Polish). Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Sejmowe. ISBN978-83-7059-388-9. OCLC45821071.
Trigg, Jonathan (2006). Hitler's Gauls: The History of the 33rd Waffen Division Charlemagne. Stroud: Spellmont. ISBN978-1-86227-293-4. OCLC63186910.
Vézinet, Adolphe (1974). Le Général Leclerc de Hauteclocque, Maréchal de France (in French). Presses de la Cité. OCLC1274173.
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Aufschrift am Gestapo-Gefängnis in der Kleinen Festung Theresienstadt Der Spruch bzw. die Phrase Arbeit macht frei wurde durch seine Verwendung als Toraufschrift an den nationalsozialistischen Konzentrationslagern bekannt. Durch die Pervertierung der ursprünglichen Bedeutung wird er heute als zynische und die Opfer verhöhnende Parole zur Verschleierung der menschenunwürdigen Behandlung in den Konzentrationslagern verstanden, in denen Zwangsarbeit der Unterwerfung, Ausbeutung, Erniedrigung un…
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Bagian dari seriGereja Katolik menurut negara Afrika Afrika Selatan Afrika Tengah Aljazair Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Chad Eritrea Eswatini Etiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guinea Khatulistiwa Jibuti Kamerun Kenya Komoro Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagaskar Malawi Mali Maroko Mauritania Mauritius Mesir Mozambik Namibia Niger Nigeria Pantai Gading Republik Demokratik Kongo Republik Kongo Rwanda Sao Tome dan Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia Somaliland Sud…
American award show BET AwardsCurrent: BET Awards 2023A BET Award from 2018Awarded forOutstanding achievements in the entertainment industryCountryUnited StatesPresented byBETFirst awardedJune 19, 2001; 22 years ago (2001-06-19)Websitehttp://www.bet.com/shows/bet-awards.html The BET Awards are an American award show that was established in 2001 by the Black Entertainment Television network to celebrate black entertainers and other minorities in music, film, sports and phi…
American medium tank widely used during World War 2 Medium Tank, M4 An M4 (105) Sherman tank with spare track-links welded on its front for additional armor protection, preserved at the Langenberg Liberation Memorial in Ede, NetherlandsTypeMedium tankPlace of originUnited StatesService historyIn service1942–2018[a]1942–1957 (United States)Used byUnited States, and many others (see Foreign variants and use)Wars World War II Indonesian National Revolution Greek Civi…
Relikuarium berisi tengkorak Santo Ivo (Prancis: Saint Yves) di Tréguier, Bretagne, Prancis Di ranah agama, relikui adalah benda atau barang-barang peninggalan masa silam yang memiliki signifikansi keagamaan.[1] Relikui biasanya berupa sisa jasad atau barang-barang milik pribadi orang kudus atau tokoh lain yang dilestarikan sebagai kenang-kenangan untuk kepentingan venerasi. Relikui merupakan unsur penting di dalam beberapa aliran agama Buddha, Kristen, Islam, syamanisme, dan banyak…
British field marshal (1883–1950) Field MarshalThe Right HonourableThe Earl WavellGCB GCSI GCIE CMG MC PCSir Archibald Wavell in Major-General's uniformViceroy and Governor-General of IndiaIn office1 October 1943 – 21 February 1947MonarchGeorge VIPrime MinisterWinston Churchill (1943–45)Clement Attlee (1945–47)Preceded byThe Marquess of LinlithgowSucceeded byThe Viscount Mountbatten of BurmaMember of the House of LordsLord TemporalIn office28 July 1943 …
British Jewish poet, translator, and social activist Nina SalamanBornPauline Ruth Davis(1877-07-15)15 July 1877Derby, Derbyshire, England[1]Died22 February 1925(1925-02-22) (aged 47)Barley, Hertfordshire, England[2]Resting placeWillesden Jewish CemeteryOccupationPoet, translator, essayistLanguageEnglish, HebrewNationalityEnglishNotable worksSongs of Exile by Hebrew Poets (1901)The Voices of the Rivers (1910)Selected Poems of Jehudah Halevi (1924)Spouse Redcliffe Salaman …
Ця стаття стосується теми Українська греко-католицька церква Структура Верховний Архієпископ – Святослав (Шевчук) Синод УГКЦ Патріарший собор Воскресіння Христового Богослов'я Катехизм «Христос — наша Пасха» Законодавство Кодекс Канонів Східних Церков Історія Предст…
University in Gajraula, Uttar Pradesh Shri Venkateshwara UniversityTypePrivateChancellorDr. Sudhir GiriVice-ChancellorDr. Rakesh K. YadavLocationGajraula, Uttar Pradesh, IndiaCampusUrbanAffiliationsUGCWebsitewww.svu.edu.in Shri Venkateshwara University (SVU) is a private university located in Gajraula, Uttar Pradesh, India.[1] The university was established in 2010 through the Shri Venkateshwara University Uttar Pradesh Act, 2010[2] as a venture of the Venkateshwara Group Of Inst…
American rabbi RabbiDovid TrenkRabbi Trenk in 2008PersonalBornMenachem Yechiel Dovid Trenk[1]1941New York City, New York, U.S.DiedJune 30, 2019Lakewood, New Jersey, U.S.ReligionJudaismSpouseLeah (Bagry) TrenkParent(s)Shea Trenk and Shirley (David) TrenkPositionRosh YeshivaYeshivaYeshiva Moreshes YehoshuaBuriedMount Lebanon Cemetery, Iselin, New JerseyResidenceLakewood, New Jersey Dovid Trenk (Hebrew: מנחם יחיאל דוד טרענק; 1941 – June 30, 2019) was an Orthodox Jewish Ra…
Prêmio Contigo! de TV de 2014 28 de julho de 2014 Novela:Amor à Vida Série:Amores Roubados Atriz – Novela:Vanessa Giácomo Ator – Novela:Mateus Solano Atriz – Série:Dira PaesFernanda Montenegro Ator – Série:Cauã Reymond Prêmio Contigo! de TV ← 2013 · 2015 → O Prêmio Contigo! de TV de 2014 foi a 16ª edição que premiou os melhores do ano de 2013 e 2014. O evento que aconteceu em 28 de julho de 2014 no hotel Copacabana Palace, no Rio de Janeiro, foi apresentado…
Film by Lance Mungia Six-String SamuraiTheatrical release posterDirected byLance MungiaWritten by Jeffrey Falcon Lance Mungia Produced by Michael Burns Leanna Creel Starring Jeffrey Falcon Justin McGuire CinematographyKristian BernierEdited byJames FrisaMusic by Red Elvises Brian Tyler Distributed byPalm PicturesRelease date September 18, 1998 (September 18, 1998) Running time91 minutesCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglishBudget$2 million USD[1] Six-String Samurai is a 1998 American p…
Франсуа Арле де Шанваллонфр. François Harlay de Champvallon Архиепископ Руана 23 мая 1651 года — 4 января 1671 года Предшественник Франсуа II де Арле де Шанваллон Преемник Франсуа де Руксель де Медави 5-й архиепископ Парижа 4 января 1671 года — 6 августа 1695 года Предшественник Ардуэ…
Semi-liquid edible substance For the Mexican Cornish style pasty, see Paste (pasty). Prepared shrimp paste with chilli, Thai lime leaves, sugar and water added. Duxelles being cooked, which is eventually reduced into a paste A food paste is a semi-liquid colloidal suspension, emulsion, or aggregation used in food preparation or eaten directly as a spread.[1] Pastes are often highly spicy or aromatic, are often prepared well in advance of actual usage, and are often made into a preserve f…
Halaman ini berisi artikel tentang Perkembangan embrionik manusia. Untuk Perkembangan embrionik secara umum, lihat Perkembangan embrionik. Tahap-tahap awal perkembangan embrionik manusia Perkembangan embrionik manusia, atau embiogenesis manusia, merujuk kepada perkembangan dan pembentukan embrio manusia. Perkembangan tersebut dikarakterisasikan oleh proses pembelahan sel dan deferensiasi seluler embrio yang terjadi pada tahap-tahap awal perkembangan. Referensi Pranala luar Wikimedia Commons memi…
YTNYonhap Television News Страна Южная Корея Зона вещания Южная Корея Язык вещания корейский Штаб-квартира YTN Newsquare[d], Мапхогу Дата начала вещания 1 марта 1987 года Основатель Yonhap Владелец Yonhap Руководители Pyo Wan-su, Исполняющий директор Сайт (кор.) Медиафайлы на Викискладе YTN (KRX: 040300, Yo…
American baseball player (1898–1990) For the English footballer, see Joseph Sewell. For the US politician, see Joseph Sewall. For the American academic, see Joseph A. Sewall. Baseball player Joe SewellSewell, c. 1921Shortstop / Third basemanBorn: (1898-10-09)October 9, 1898Titus, Alabama, U.S.Died: March 6, 1990(1990-03-06) (aged 91)Mobile, Alabama, U.S.Batted: LeftThrew: RightMLB debutSeptember 10, 1920, for the Cleveland IndiansLast MLB appearanceSeptember 24, …
Den här artikeln har skapats av Lsjbot, ett program (en robot) för automatisk redigering. (2016-04)Artikeln kan innehålla fakta- eller språkfel, eller ett märkligt urval av fakta, källor eller bilder. Mallen kan avlägsnas efter en kontroll av innehållet (vidare information) Agua Santa del Yuna Trujillo del Yuna Ort Land Dominikanska republiken Provins Duarte Kommun Villa Riva Höjdläge 8 m ö.h. Koordinater 19°09′03″N 69°48′02″V / 19.15072°N 69…
For the film based on the book, see Mystic River (film). 2001 novel by Dennis Lehane This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Mystic River novel – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mystic River First edition coverAuthorDen…
Organic redox reaction that converts hydroxyphenyl aldehydes or ketones into benzenediols Dakin reaction Named after Henry Drysdale Dakin Reaction type Organic redox reaction Identifiers Organic Chemistry Portal dakin-reaction RSC ontology ID RXNO:0000169 The Dakin oxidation The Dakin oxidation (or Dakin reaction) is an organic redox reaction in which an ortho- or para-hydroxylated phenyl aldehyde (2-hydroxybenzaldehyde or 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde) or ketone reacts with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in …
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