Luna (or Luna Inkongo) is a Bantu language of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Assigned by Guthrie to a group called Songe (L.20), it is presumably one of the Luban languages established by Ahmed (1995), like most of the other Songe languages, though it was not specifically addressed.[3] Ruhlen (1987) agrees in placing it with the Luban languages.
Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable.
Grammar
As is typical of Bantu languages, Luna utilizes a noun-class system defined by prefixes. The distal demonstrative 'that, yon' can be formed by adding the prefix yi- to the form. These are defined below:
Class prefixes
Class
Singular
Plural
Relative/pronominal singular
Relative/pronominal plural
Possessive
singular
Possessive
plural
Demonstrative
1
di-, bu-, bwa-, bo-, ku-
ma-, ø-
bu-, di-, ku-
a-
-adio, -abu, -aku
-ao
bobu, dedi, koku, aa
2
ka-
tu-
ka-
tu-
-ako
-atu
kaka, totu
3
ki-
bi-
ki-
bi-
-akio
-abio
k(i)eki, bebi
4
lu-, lo-, lwo-
N-
lu-
i-, y-, yi-
-alu
-ayo
lolu, yei
5
mu-
mi-
u- (before consonant), V̆- (before vowel)
-au
-ayo
ou, yei
6
mwo-
mie-
-au
-ayo
7
mu-, ø-
ba-
u- (before consonant), a- (before vowel)
ba-
-anci, -enci (after i)
-abo
you, baba
8
ø-
ø-
i-, y-, yi-
-anci
-abo
you, yei
Additionally, there are three locative/adverbial prefixes, these being ku- (at a place, motion towards something), mu- (motion into something, within something), and pa- (near to or on, approaching something).
Pronouns are prefixed to the front of a verb before the tense (except for objective form, which is placed directly before the verb root) and verb root. Possessive pronouns generally follow the noun they possess. They are as follows.[6]
Personal pronouns
Person
Independent
Subject
Object
Negated
Possessive
Reflexive
1SG
meme
ngu-, n-, m-
ki-
-amene
mikyemi
2SG
owe
u-
ku-
ku-
-ebe
mikyebe
3SG
yei
u-, a-
mu-
ka-
-anci/-enci
mikyenci
1PL
coco
tu-
katu-
-ecu
mikyecu
2PL
nonu
nu-
kanu-
-enu
mikyenu
3PL
bobo
ba-
kaba-
-abo
mikyeabo
Ngu- is the first person singular subject prefix except before -di 'to be' (ndi 'I am') -bili 'to know' (mbili 'I know') and in the present tense progressive aspect of verbs, indicated by tana- (n-tana-nanga 'I am loving') and before object infixes. If there is an indirect and direct object, the indirect object is infixed in the object position and the direct object is moved to the end of the verb.The present and past progressive can also be expressed using the expressing -di mu + infinitive verb, literally to 'be in doing.' Relative pronouns are the same as subject pronouns when the subject, and moved to after the object pronoun when an object. (e. g. ngwakadya bukula 'I ate the flour' > bukula bunakadya 'the flour which I ate'). In relative clauses, ta- replaces the negative prefix.
n-kw-a-nanga
1SG.SUB-2SG.OBJ-PRES-love
n-kw-a-nanga
1SG.SUB-2SG.OBJ-PRES-love
I love you
Ma-la
NP1.PL-town
a-tw-aka-mona
NP1.PL.REL-1PL.SUB-PST.PRF-see
Ma-la a-tw-aka-mona
NP1.PL-town NP1.PL.REL-1PL.SUB-PST.PRF-see
The towns which we saw
Various tense, aspect, and mood (TAM) prefixes may be added to a verb to modify its meaning. [7] In the present progressive, past continuous, past perfective, past pluperfect, and simple future, the infinitive morpheme ku- must be placed before the first vowel of a vowel-initial verb, except for in -angata 'fetch' and -akala 'be'. In monosyllabic vowels, the first consonant and vowel (-VC) are repeated (e. g. -fwa 'die' > nfofwa 'I die', -ela 'throw' > ngwelela 'I throw') in the first person singular. If the root is not vowel-initial, the vowel -e- is inserted if the final syllable is -ya, and -o- is inserted in all other cases. The final vowel becomes -i in the hortative imperative. The prefix bi- indicates a meaning of 'so that, that, in order that' and the suffix -po 'please' 'is added to commands when addressing a superior.
Luna TAM prefixes
TAM
Prefix
Example
English
Simple present
a-, VC- (monosyllabic)
nwananga
I love
Present progressive
tana-
ntanananga
I am loving
Past continuous
ama-
namananga
I have loved (and am loving)
Recent past/present perfect
apu-
napunanga
I have loved
Past perfective
aka-
nakananga
I loved
Past pluperfect
akama-
nakamananga
I had loved
Affirmative past
a-
nananga
I did love
Simple future
na- (1SG naku-)
nakunanga
I will love
Definitive future
kye-
nkyenanga
I will love (at some definite time)
Conditional
xe-
nxenanga
I should, would love
Imperative
ø-
nanga
Love (command)
Hortative
-i
Anangi
Let him/her love
Additionally, complex verbs can be derived from simple verbs using prefixes.
Complex verbs
Form
Verb
Example
English
Simple
-xipa
kill
Reflexive
di-
-dixipa
kill oneself
Causative
-sa
-xipisa
cause to kill oneself
Relative
-la
-xipila
kill for another
Reciprocal/Habitual
-ñana
-xipañana
kill each other, kill habitually
Stative
-ka
-xipaka
be dead, in a killed state
Continuous
REDUPLICATED
-xipa xipa
keep on killing
Passive
-bwa
-xipibwa
be killed
There are a few adverbs that affix directly onto the verb:
Adverbs
Adverb
Meaning
Example
be-
please, used to soften commands,
slightly, softly in non-imperatives
bedipula ncibo 'kindly open the house for me'
ki-
still
tukyananga 'we still love'
-po
please, if you please
namanangapo kantu ka sabanga 'I want a little bit of soap please'
mu- and bi-
the state in which, how
tebela mwencencayi 'behold how he works'
Cardinal numerals decline as both adjectives and simple numerals.
Independent
Cardinal
Ordinal
1
kôci
-mo~mwe
-a buxi
2
pende
-bidi
-amubidi
3
exatu
-satu
-amusatu
4
enei
-nai
-amunai
5
etano
-tano
-amutano
6
esambanu
-sambomo
-amusambomo
7
sambwali
sambwali
-a sambwali
8
yenana
yenana
-a yenana
9
dibwa
dibwa
-a dibwa
10
iyomu
disangi
-a disangi
References
^Luna at Ethnologue (8th ed., 1974). Note: Data may come from an earlier edition.
