The ranks of imperial consorts have varied over the course of Chinese history but remained important throughout owing to its prominence in the management of the inner court and in imperial succession, which ranked heirs according to the prominence of their mothers in addition to their birth order. Regardless of the age, however, it is common in English translation to simplify this hierarchy into the three ranks of empress, consorts, and concubines.[1] It is also common to use the term "harem", an Arabic loan word used in recent times to refer to imperial women's forbidden quarters in many countries. In later Chinese dynasties, these quarters were known as the inner palace (內宮; nèigōng) or the rear palace (後宮; hòugōng).[2] In Chinese, the system is called the "rear palace system" (後宮制度; hòugōng zhìdù).[3]
No matter the dynasty, the empress (皇后; huánghòu) held the highest rank and was the legal wife of the emperor, as well as the chief of the imperial harem and "mother of the nation" (母后天下; mǔhòu tiānxià) which translates to ”imperial mother of all under heaven”. She was also known as the "central palace" (中宮; zhōnggōng). In addition, the emperor would typically have other imperial women (嬪妃; pínfēi). Every dynasty had its set of rules regarding the numerical composition of the harem.
Early history
There existed a class of royal consorts called ying (媵; yìng) during early historical times in China. These were people who came along with brides as a form of dowry. It could be a female cousin or sister of the bride, or people from other countries (not necessarily from another race).
Worth noting is the fact that during the Shang dynasty, there were times when two queens existed at the same period.
The Rites of Zhou contains great details of a royal consort ranking system. However, as the Rites of Zhou is considered by modern scholars[who?] to be merely a fictitious constitution for a utopian society, the system listed in that work of literature cannot be taken word for word. Rather, it offers a rough glimpse into the inner palace during the time.
Ranking system for kings
The Rites of Zhou states that kings are entitled to the following:
1 Queen (王后; wánghòu)
2 Consorts (妃; fēi)
3 Madames (夫人; fūrén)
9 Concubines (嬪; pín)
27 Hereditary Ladies (世婦; shìfù)
81 Royal Wives (御妻; yùqī)
It was suggested that a system (not necessarily resembling the one listed above) was set up to prevent the situation of having two queens/empresses.
Ranking system for others
According to the Rites of Zhou, under the feudalfengjian governance system, aristocratic feudal lords were entitled to nine consorts in total, and cannot marry again after having nine consorts, which makes for one wife and eight concubines. For other officers, they are entitled to one wife and one concubine. For normal citizens, only one wife is allowed.
Lady of Handsome Fairness (婕妤; jiéyú), created by Emperor Wu
Lady of Youthful Fairness (娙娥; xíng‘é), created by Emperor Wu
Lady of Splendid Countenance (容華; rónghuá), created by Emperor Wu
Lady of Complete Deportment (充衣; chōngyī), created by Emperor Wu
Lady of Beauty (美人; měirén)
Lady of Gentleness (良人; liángrén)
Learned Lady (八子; bāzi)
Harmonious Lady (七子; qīzi)
Senior Waiting Lady (長使; zhǎngshǐ)
Junior Waiting Lady (少使; shàoshǐ)
Courtier of Miscellaneous Uses (五官; wǔguān)
Lady of Complaisant Constancy (順常; shùncháng)
Lady Without Impurity (舞涓; wǔjuān) Lady of Reverent Gentleness (共和; gònghé) Lady Who Pleases the Spirit (娛靈; yúlíng) Lady Who Can Safeguard a Multitude (保林; bǎolín) Gentle Waiting Lady (良使; liángshǐ) Lady of Night Attendance (夜者; yèzhě)
No limits were set for these imperial consorts. This later created situations when more than 20,000 women were living in the palace during the reigns of Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling.
Three Kingdoms
During the Three Kingdoms period, Cao Wei used the following system:
In 483, when Emperor Wu ascended to the throne, the positions of noble consort (貴妃; guìfēi) and pure consort (淑妃; shūfēi) were elevated to independent categories, just beneath the empress. In 489, the position of lady of bright countenance (昭容; zhāoróng) was added to fill the gap created upon the elevation of pure consort (淑妃; shūfēi).
Initially, during the reign of Emperor Wu, no specific ranking system for imperial consorts were devised, due to his desire to live a simple life. It was only during Emperor Wen's reign that a ranking system came into being:
During the reign of Emperor Daowu, the ranking system was very simple, and only contained the rank of madame (夫人; fūrén). However, there existed an unwritten, subjective system of prestige. It was during the reign of Emperor Taiwu that the system listed below came into existence:
Empress (皇后; huánghòu)
Left Lady of Bright Deportment (左昭儀; zuǒzhāoyí) Right Lady of Bright Deportment (右昭儀; yòuzhāoyí)
During the reign of Emperor Xuan, five empresses were created (unprecedented by Chinese standards):
Yang Lihua (楊麗華), Primary Great Heavenly Empress (天元大皇后; tiānyuándàhuánghòu)
Zhu Manyue (朱滿月), Great Heavenly Empress (天大皇后; tiāndàhuánghòu)
Chen Yueyi (陳月儀), Great Central Heavenly Empress (天中大皇后; tiānzhōngdàhuánghòu)
Yuchi Chifan (尉遲熾繁), Great Left Heavenly Empress (天左大皇后; tiānzuǒdàhuánghòu)
Yuan Leshang (元樂尚), Great Right Heavenly Empress (天右大皇后; tiānyòudàhuánghòu)
In addition, there was an innumerable number of women in the palace.
Sui
At the beginning of the Sui dynasty, there existed a simple system of ranking:
1 Empress (皇后; huánghòu)
4 Concubines (嬪; pín)
9 Hereditary Ladies (世婦; shìfù)
38 Ladies of His Majesty (禦女; yùnǚ)
There also existed a system of female palace officers (女官; nǚguān) to manage ceremonial affairs in the inner palace. The system was based on similar systems of the past.
During the reign of Emperor Yang, the ranking system was expanded yet again:
1 Empress (皇后; huánghòu)
3 Consorts (妃; fēi)
Noble Consort (貴妃; guìfēi)
Pure Consort (淑妃; shūfēi)
Virtuous Consort (德妃; défēi)
9 Concubines (嬪; pín)
Lady of Conducive Wellness (順儀; shùnyí)
Lady of Supportive Wellness (順容; shùnróng)
Lady of Splendid Wellness (順華; shùnhuá)
Lady of Cultivated Deportment (修儀; xiūyí)
Lady of Cultivated Countenance (修容; xiūróng)
Lady of Cultivated Splendidness (修華; xiūhuá)
Lady of Complete Deportment (充儀; chōngyī)
Lady of Complete Countenance (充容; chōngróng)
Lady of Complete Splendidness (充華; chōnghuá)
12 Ladies Handsome Fairness (婕妤; jiéyú)
15 Hereditary Ladies (世婦; shìfù)
Lady of Beauty (美人; měirén)
Lady of Talent (才人; cáirén)
24 Ladies of Treasure (寶林; bǎolín)
24 Ladies of His Majesty (禦女; yùnǚ)
37 Ladies of Elegance (採女; cǎinǚ)
Tang
Empress Wu, better known as Wu Zetian, was a consort of Emperors Taizong and Gaozong, as well as the only female emperor in Chinese history
Imperial consorts of the Tang dynasty were organized in eight or nine ranks, in addition to the empress. They were also called the "inner officials" (內官; nèiguān), as opposed to "palace officials" (宮官; gōngguān), the bureaucracy.
Emperor Gaozong wants to create and promote Lady Wu, who ranked currently as Lady Wu of Bright Deportment (武昭儀; Wū Zhāoyí) to Royal Consort (宸妃, chēnfei) because, the 4 ranks of consorts were already occupied but, the court official officials opposed this idea, saying that it is unprecedented on which the emperor can only have four consorts and the character chēn (宸) was used to refer the power of the emperor, thus Emperor Gaozong does not carry out his plan.[4] In 662, the titles were temporarily changed to be devoid of feminine quality. This seemingly feminist change was reverted in the twelfth month of 670. The rationales were not explained in official records in both instances. However, some scholars have speculated it to be the suggestion of Empress Wu to her husband.[5]
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, governments were replaced frequently, and as a result, it is difficult for modern scholars to derive any solid information on ranking systems during these times.
However, it is known that the Later Tang used the following system:
Lady of Bright Countenance (昭容; zhāoróng)
Lady of Bright Deportment (昭儀; zhāoyí)
Lady of Bright Beauty (昭媛; zhāoyuàn)
Missionary Lady (出使; chūshǐ)
First Lady of His Majesty (禦正; yùzhèng)
True Servant (侍眞; shìzhēn)
Lady of Honorable Talent (懿才; yìcái)
Lady of Unity (咸一; xiányī)
Precious Flower (瑤芳; yáofāng)
Lady of Honorable Moral (懿德; yìdé)
Lady of Promise (宣一; xuānyī)
Whether there were any limits to the holders of these titles are unknown.
The Yuan dynasty ranking system was at its simplest, and only consisted of empress, consort, and concubine. While there was only one empress at a time, there were no limits on the number of consorts or concubines.
Although the number of ranks were few, there existed a sub-system of ranking by prestige inside the Yuan harem. An imperial consort's tent (Chinese: 宮帳; gōngzhàng; translated from the Mongolian term for yurts: 斡兒垜; wòérkàng) determined her status; multiple women often lived in the same one. In the many tents that existed, the imperial consort of the first tent was considered to be the most prestigious woman.
As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided women to the Yuan dynasty.[7][8] One of them was Empress Gi, who, through her political command and incorporation of Korean females and eunuchs in the court, spread Korean clothing, food, and lifestyle in the capital.[9][10][11] The entry of Korean women into the Yuan court was reciprocated by the entry of Yuan princesses into the Goryeo court, beginning with the marriage of King Chungnyeol and a daughter of Kublai Khan; in total, nine princesses of the Yuan imperial family married into the Goryeo royal family.[12]
Emperor Gong of Song surrendered to the Mongols in 1276 and was married off to a Yuan princess of the Borjigin clan; they had one son, Zhao Wanpu, who was only exiled after Emperor Gong's death due to his mother's ancestry. Paul Pelliot and John Andrew Boyle identified references to Zhao Xian in The Successors of Genghis Khan chapter of Rashid al-Din Hamadani's Jami' al-tawarikh; he mentions a Chinese ruler who was an "emir" and son-in-law to the "qan" (khan) after being removed from his throne by the Mongols and he is also called "monarch of Song" (宋主; sòngzhŭ) in the book.[13]
Human tribute, including servants, eunuchs, and virgin girls came from China's various ethnic tribes, as well as Mongolia, Korea, Vietnam,[14][15] Cambodia, Central Asia, Siam, Champa, and Okinawa.[16]
Joseon sent a total of 114 women to the Ming dynasty, consisting of 16 virgin girls (accompanied by 48 female servants), 42 cooks, and 8 performers.[17][18] The women were sent to the Yongle and Xuande emperors in a total of seven missions between 1408 and 1433.[18] Xuande was the last Ming emperor to receive human tribute from Korea;[19] with his death in 1435, 53 Korean women were repatriated.[20] There was much speculation that the Yongle Emperor's real mother was a Korean[21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29] or Mongolian[30] concubine.[31][32][33] Relations between Ming China and Joseon Korea improved dramatically and became much more amicable and mutually profitable during Yongle's reign.[25] Both Yongle and Xuande are said to have had a penchant for Korean cuisine and women.[25][34][35]
Central Asian concubines, mostly of Uighur and Mongol origin, were provided to the Zhengde Emperor by a Muslim guard and Sayyid Hussein from Hami.[36][37][38] The speculation about Zhengde becoming a Muslim is remembered alongside his excessive and debauched behavior with his concubines of foreign origin.[39] Muslim Central Asian women were favored by Zhengde like how Korean women were favored by Yongle and Xuande.[40][41][42]
The Qing dynasty system was one of the simplest systems in Chinese history. Officially, there were eight ranks:
Empress (皇后; huánghòu)
Imperial Noble Consort (皇貴妃; huángguìfēi)
Noble Consort (貴妃; guìfēi)
Consort (妃; fēi)
Concubine (嬪; pín)
Noble Lady (貴人; guìrén)
First Class Attendant (常在; chángzài)
Second Class Attendant (答應; dāyìng)
There was no fixed number of holders for the three lowest ranks. Lady-in-waiting (官女子; guānnǘzǐ) was typically used to refer the palace maids whose been liked by the emperor and keep them at his side attending to him but, without a formal/proper title. It was not part of the official ranking.[43]
The system was solid, but the number of imperial consorts an emperor actually had during the Qing dynasty is subject to wild variations. The Kangxi Emperor holds the record for having the most imperial consorts with 79, while the Guangxu Emperor holds the record for having the fewest, with one empress, his cousin, the Empress of Yeha Nara Clan and 2 consorts who are sisters, Consort Zhen and Consort Jin— a total of 3 imperial consorts.[44]
There were limits placed on how many imperial consorts could hold the ranks of concubine and above. An emperor could have 1 empress, 1 imperial noble consort, 2 noble consorts, 4 consorts and 6 concubines at a time. The ranks of noble lady, first class attendant and second class attendant were unlimited.
An imperial woman who had attained the rank of concubine and above would be given a residence in the main section of one of the palace in the inner court of the Forbidden City and become its mistress (主位, zhǔwèi), and when being addressed by lower ranked imperial concubines and servants, she would have to be called your imperial highness (娘娘; níangníang). All people were expected to use deprecating self-titles when addressing higher ranked people and imperial consorts were no different. While those imperial women whose ranks of noble lady, first class attendant and second class attendant, can only live in the side halls of the palace.
Those imperial women whose ranks from concubine to empress, they can have a sedan chair, to be carried by designated eunuchs, followed by the banner holder, imperial guards, maids and eunuchs, bringing the royal regalias in a royal entourage. The empress entourage was called yíjià (仪驾), the imperial noble consort and noble consorts entourage was called yízhàng (仪仗) and the consorts and concubines entourage was called cǎizhàng (彩仗). Those ranks of noble lady, first class attendant and second class attendant can't have a sedan chair, unless given/permitted by the emperor.
The empress was the only legal wife of the emperor, while his other women were considered imperial concubines. The empress' children was called legitimate heir (嫡子, dízǐ), on which the princes that was bore by the empress have the higher chance of inheriting the throne; while the children of the other imperial consorts were called imperial concubine child (庶子, shùzǐ).
When the crown prince ascended to the throne, he was allowed to posthumously promote his late wives (even the imperial wives of the late emperors) in the ranks. A primary consort could be honored as empress, while secondary consorts and mistresses could be elevated to any of the seven other ranks (from second class attendant to imperial noble consort).
A posthumous title (谥号;shìhào) is given to the empress and imperial noble consort after they die. The total characters in the empresses posthumous title is 16 while, there are only 2 characters in the imperial noble consort. For the empress given posthumous names, (孝; xiào) which means “filial”, is always initial and ended with the emperors name (号, hào); but the emperors name is only given to the empress after the emperor died. For the imperial noble consort given posthumous name, it uses their honor names (封号; fēnghào) and added one character (either initial or last).[45]
An emperor would be careful when promoting an imperial consort to the rank of imperial noble consort because this rank was considered a deputy empress (副后; fùhòu). As such, the promotions mostly happened when an imperial consort (usually a noble consort) was hopelessly ill and the emperor wanted to console her (it was believed that a promotion was a blessing and could aid in dispelling the sickness), when the empress needed someone to assist her in managing the inner court or when the empress was dead and someone else was needed to manage the inner court.
An empress who outlived her husband would become empress dowager (皇太后; huángtàihòu) and would be known as imperial mother, empress dowager (母后皇太后; mŭhòu huángtàihòu). In the cases when the new emperor's birth mother was one of the former emperor's imperial consorts, she would also become empress dowager and would be known as sage mother, empress dowager (聖母皇太后; shèngmŭ huángtàihòu), as well as being posthumously honored as empress. An empress dowager who lived through the reigns of at least two subsequent emperors would be called grand empress dowager (太皇太后; tàihuángtàihòu).
The other imperial consorts of the former emperor would be addressed as dowager (太; tài) according to their rank, but it was not required. A concubine would be called concubine dowager (太嬪; tàipín), a consort would be called consort dowager (太妃; tàifēi), a noble consort would be called noble consort dowager (貴太妃; guìtàifēi) and an imperial noble consort would be called imperial noble consort dowager (皇貴太妃; huángguìtàifēi). The empress and imperial consorts were expected to pay respect to the elders who held the positions above. However, the former emperor's low-ranked imperial concubines (noble lady, first class attendant and second class attendant) would simply be referred to as palace woman of the late emperor (先帝宮女; xiāndì gōngnü).
A prince's harem consists of only three ranks:
Primary Consort (嫡福晋; dífújìn)
Secondary Consort (侧福晋; cèfújìn)
Mistress (格格; gége)
The primary consort is the official wife of the prince and only one can have this position. The secondary consort are the second wives of the prince, on which only two can occupy the position. The mistress are the women of the princes on which, they came from the lower background family/clans, on which, they can came from the main and secondary consorts as dowry maids or a tribute of the government officials to the emperor and gifted as a maid to the prince.[46]
References
Citations
^"Empresses and Consorts: Selections from Chen Shou's Records of the Three States with Pei Songzhi's Commentary". China Review International, Vol. 8, No. 2, Fall 2001, pp. 358–363.
^The table is after Wu Jo-shui's "Empress Wu and Proto-Feminist Sentiments in T'ang China," in Imperial Rulership and Cultural Change in Traditional China. Seattle: University of Washington press, pp. 77-116.
^He, Li; Knight, Michael; Vinograd, Richard Ellis; Bartholomew, Terese Tse; Chan, Dany; Culture, Asian Art Museum--Chong-Moon Lee Center for Asian Art and; Art, Indianapolis Museum of; Museum, St Louis Art (2008). Power and glory: court arts of China's Ming dynasty. Asian Art Museum--Chong-Moon Lee Center for Asian Art and Culture. p. 153. ISBN9780939117420. Retrieved 13 September 2016.
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