Entropic gravity

The theory of entropic gravity abides by Newton's law of universal gravitation on Earth and at interplanetary distances but diverges from this classic nature at interstellar distances.

Entropic gravity, also known as emergent gravity, is a theory in modern physics that describes gravity as an entropic force—a force with macro-scale homogeneity but which is subject to quantum-level disorder—and not a fundamental interaction. The theory, based on string theory, black hole physics, and quantum information theory, describes gravity as an emergent phenomenon that springs from the quantum entanglement of small bits of spacetime information. As such, entropic gravity is said to abide by the second law of thermodynamics under which the entropy of a physical system tends to increase over time.

The theory has been controversial within the physics community but has sparked research and experiments to test its validity.

Significance

At its simplest, the theory holds that when gravity becomes vanishingly weak—levels seen only at interstellar distances—it diverges from its classically understood nature and its strength begins to decay linearly with distance from a mass.

Entropic gravity provides an underlying framework to explain Modified Newtonian Dynamics, or MOND, which holds that at a gravitational acceleration threshold of approximately 1.2×10⁻¹⁰ m/s², gravitational strength begins to vary inversely linearly with distance from a mass rather than the normal inverse-square law of the distance. This is an exceedingly low threshold, measuring only 12 trillionths gravity's strength at Earth's surface; an object dropped from a height of one meter would fall for 36 hours were Earth's gravity this weak. It is also 3,000 times less than the remnant of Earth's gravitational field that exists at the point where Voyager 1 crossed the solar system's heliopause and entered interstellar space.

The theory claims to be consistent with both the macro-level observations of Newtonian gravity as well as Einstein's theory of general relativity and its gravitational distortion of spacetime. Importantly, the theory also explains (without invoking the existence of dark matter and tweaking of its new free parameters) why galactic rotation curves differ from the profile expected with visible matter.

The theory of entropic gravity posits that what has been interpreted as unobserved dark matter is the product of quantum effects that can be regarded as a form of positive dark energy that lifts the vacuum energy of space from its ground state value. A central tenet of the theory is that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal-volume law contribution to entropy that overtakes the area law of anti-de Sitter space precisely at the cosmological horizon.

Thus this theory provides an alternative explanation for what mainstream physics currently attributes to dark matter. Since dark matter is believed to compose the vast majority of the universe's mass, a theory in which it is absent has huge implications for cosmology. In addition to continuing theoretical work in various directions, there are many experiments planned or in progress to actually detect or better determine the properties of dark matter (beyond its gravitational attraction), all of which would be undermined by an alternative explanation for the gravitational effects currently attributed to this elusive entity.

Origin

The thermodynamic description of gravity has a history that goes back at least to research on black hole thermodynamics by Bekenstein and Hawking in the mid-1970s. These studies suggest a deep connection between gravity and thermodynamics, which describes the behavior of heat. In 1995, Jacobson demonstrated that the Einstein field equations describing relativistic gravitation can be derived by combining general thermodynamic considerations with the equivalence principle.^[1] Subsequently, other physicists, most notably Thanu Padmanabhan, began to explore links between gravity and entropy.^[2][3]

Erik Verlinde's theory

In 2009, Erik Verlinde proposed a conceptual model that describes gravity as an entropic force.^[4] He argues (similar to Jacobson's result) that gravity is a consequence of the "information associated with the positions of material bodies".^[5] This model combines the thermodynamic approach to gravity with Gerard 't Hooft's holographic principle. It implies that gravity is not a fundamental interaction, but an emergent phenomenon which arises from the statistical behavior of microscopic degrees of freedom encoded on a holographic screen. The paper drew a variety of responses from the scientific community. Andrew Strominger, a string theorist at Harvard said "Some people have said it can't be right, others that it's right and we already knew it – that it’s right and profound, right and trivial."^[6]

In July 2011, Verlinde presented the further development of his ideas in a contribution to the Strings 2011 conference, including an explanation for the origin of dark matter.^[7]

Verlinde's article also attracted a large amount of media exposure,^[8][9] and led to immediate follow-up work in cosmology,^[10][11] the dark energy hypothesis,^[12] cosmological acceleration,^[13][14] cosmological inflation,^[15] and loop quantum gravity.^[16] Also, a specific microscopic model has been proposed that indeed leads to entropic gravity emerging at large scales.^[17] Entropic gravity can emerge from quantum entanglement of local Rindler horizons.^[18]

Derivation of the law of gravitation

The law of gravitation is derived from classical statistical mechanics applied to the holographic principle, that states that the description of a volume of space can be thought of as ${\displaystyle N}$ bits of binary information, encoded on a boundary to that region, a closed surface of area ${\displaystyle A}$. The information is evenly distributed on the surface with each bit requiring an area equal to ${\displaystyle \ell _{\text{P}}^{2}}$, the so-called Planck area, from which ${\displaystyle N}$ can thus be computed: $${\displaystyle N={\frac {A}{\ell _{\text{P}}^{2}}}}$$ where ${\displaystyle \ell _{\text{P}}}$ is the Planck length. The Planck length is defined as: $${\displaystyle \ell _{\text{P}}={\sqrt {\frac {\hbar G}{c^{3}}}}}$$ where ${\displaystyle G}$ is the universal gravitational constant, ${\displaystyle c}$ is the speed of light, and ${\displaystyle \hbar }$ is the reduced Planck constant. When substituted in the equation for ${\displaystyle N}$ we find: $${\displaystyle N={\frac {Ac^{3}}{\hbar G}}}$$

The statistical equipartition theorem defines the temperature ${\displaystyle T}$ of a system with ${\displaystyle N}$ degrees of freedom in terms of its energy ${\displaystyle E}$ such that: $${\displaystyle E={\frac {1}{2}}Nk_{\text{B}}T}$$ where ${\displaystyle k_{\text{B}}}$ is the Boltzmann constant. This is the equivalent energy for a mass ${\displaystyle M}$ according to: $${\displaystyle E=Mc^{2}.}$$

The effective temperature experienced due to a uniform acceleration in a vacuum field according to the Unruh effect is: $${\displaystyle T={\frac {\hbar a}{2\pi ck_{\text{B}}}},}$$ where ${\displaystyle a}$ is that acceleration, which for a mass ${\displaystyle m}$ would be attributed to a force ${\displaystyle F}$ according to Newton's second law of motion: $${\displaystyle F=ma.}$$

Taking the holographic screen to be a sphere of radius ${\displaystyle r}$, the surface area would be given by: $${\displaystyle A=4\pi r^{2}.}$$

From algebraic substitution of these into the above relations, one derives Newton's law of universal gravitation: $${\displaystyle F=m{\frac {2\pi ck_{\text{B}}T}{\hbar }}=m{\frac {4\pi c}{\hbar }}{\frac {E}{N}}=m{\frac {4\pi c^{3}}{\hbar }}{\frac {M}{N}}=m4\pi {\frac {GM}{A}}=G{\frac {mM}{r^{2}}}.}$$

Note that this derivation assumes that the number of the binary bits of information is equal to the number of the degrees of freedom. $${\displaystyle {\frac {A}{\ell _{\text{P}}^{2}}}=N={\frac {2E}{k_{\text{B}}T}}}$$

Criticism and experimental tests

Entropic gravity, as proposed by Verlinde in his original article, reproduces the Einstein field equations and, in a Newtonian approximation, a ${\displaystyle \ {\tfrac {\ 1\ }{r}}\ }$ potential for gravitational forces. Since its results do not differ from Newtonian gravity except in regions of extremely small gravitational fields, testing the theory with earth-based laboratory experiments does not appear feasible. Spacecraft-based experiments performed at Lagrangian points within our solar system would be expensive and challenging.

Even so, entropic gravity in its current form has been severely challenged on formal grounds. Matt Visser has shown^[19] that the attempt to model conservative forces in the general Newtonian case (i.e. for arbitrary potentials and an unlimited number of discrete masses) leads to unphysical requirements for the required entropy and involves an unnatural number of temperature baths of differing temperatures. Visser concludes:

There is no reasonable doubt concerning the physical reality of entropic forces, and no reasonable doubt that classical (and semi-classical) general relativity is closely related to thermodynamics [52–55]. Based on the work of Jacobson [1–6], Thanu Padmanabhan [7–12], and others, there are also good reasons to suspect a thermodynamic interpretation of the fully relativistic Einstein equations might be possible. Whether the specific proposals of Verlinde [26] are anywhere near as fundamental is yet to be seen – the rather baroque construction needed to accurately reproduce n-body Newtonian gravity in a Verlinde-like setting certainly gives one pause.

For the derivation of Einstein's equations from an entropic gravity perspective, Tower Wang shows^[20] that the inclusion of energy-momentum conservation and cosmological homogeneity and isotropy requirements severely restricts a wide class of potential modifications of entropic gravity, some of which have been used to generalize entropic gravity beyond the singular case of an entropic model of Einstein's equations. Wang asserts that:

As indicated by our results, the modified entropic gravity models of form (2), if not killed, should live in a very narrow room to assure the energy-momentum conservation and to accommodate a homogeneous isotropic universe.

Cosmological observations using available technology can be used to test the theory. On the basis of lensing by the galaxy cluster Abell 1689, Nieuwenhuizen concludes that EG is strongly ruled out unless additional (dark) matter-like eV neutrinos is added.^[21] A team from Leiden Observatory statistically observing the lensing effect of gravitational fields at large distances from the centers of more than 33,000 galaxies found that those gravitational fields were consistent with Verlinde's theory.^[22][23][24] Using conventional gravitational theory, the fields implied by these observations (as well as from measured galaxy rotation curves) could only be ascribed to a particular distribution of dark matter. In June 2017, a study by Princeton University researcher Kris Pardo asserted that Verlinde's theory is inconsistent with the observed rotation velocities of dwarf galaxies.^[25][a][26] Another theory of entropy based on geometric considerations (Quantitative Geometrical Thermodynamics, QGT^[27]) provides an entropic basis for the holographic principle^[28] and also offers another explanation for galaxy rotation curves as being due to the entropic influence^[27] of the central supermassive blackhole found in the center of a spiral galaxy.

In 2018, Zhi-Wei Wang and Samuel L. Braunstein showed that, while spacetime surfaces near black holes (called stretched horizons) do obey an analog of the first law of thermodynamics, ordinary spacetime surfaces — including holographic screens — generally do not, thus undermining the key thermodynamic assumption of the emergent gravity program.^[29]

In his 1964 lecture on the Relation of Mathematics and Physics, Richard Feynman describes a related theory for gravity where the gravitational force is explained due to an entropic force due to unspecified microscopic degrees of freedom.^[30] However, he immediately points out that the resulting theory cannot be correct as the fluctuation-dissipation theorem would also lead to friction which would slow down the motion of the planets which contradicts observations.

Entropic gravity and quantum coherence

Another criticism of entropic gravity is that entropic processes should, as critics argue, break quantum coherence. There is no theoretical framework quantitatively describing the strength of such decoherence effects, though. The temperature of the gravitational field in earth gravity well is very small (on the order of 10⁻¹⁹K).

Experiments with ultra-cold neutrons in the gravitational field of Earth are claimed to show that neutrons lie on discrete levels exactly as predicted by the Schrödinger equation considering the gravitation to be a conservative potential field without any decoherent factors. Archil Kobakhidze argues that this result disproves entropic gravity,^[31] while Chaichian et al. suggest a potential loophole in the argument in weak gravitational fields such as those affecting Earth-bound experiments.^[32]

See also

• Abraham–Lorentz force – Recoil force on accelerating charged particle
• Beyond black holes – Area of study
• Black hole electron – Hypothetical concept in physics
• Entropic force – Physical force that originates from thermodynamics instead of fundamental interactions
• Hawking radiation – Thermal radiation believed to be emitted by black holes due to quantum effects
• List of quantum gravity researchers
• Entropic elasticity of an ideal chain – Molecular model for describing polymers
• Gravity – Attraction of masses and energy
• Induced gravity – model in which space-time curvature and its dynamics emerge as a mean field approximation of underlying microscopic degrees of freedomPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback

Footnotes

1. "Emergent gravity successfully predicts the rotation velocities of the smallest galaxies in the sample. But it predicts velocities far too low for the more massive galaxies, especially the ones full of gas clouds. This discrepancy could pose a serious problem for emergent gravity, since the main success of the theory so far has been predicting the rotation curves of large galaxies."^[25]

References

1. Jacobson, Theodore (4 April 1995). "Thermodynamics of Spacetime: The Einstein Equation of State". Phys. Rev. Lett. 75 (7): 1260–1263. arXiv:gr-qc/9504004. Bibcode:1995PhRvL..75.1260J. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.1260. PMID 10060248. S2CID 13223728.
2. Padmanabhan, Thanu (2010). "Thermodynamical Aspects of Gravity: New insights". Rep. Prog. Phys. 73 (4): 6901. arXiv:0911.5004. Bibcode:2010RPPh...73d6901P. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/73/4/046901. S2CID 209835245.
3. Mok, H.M. (13 August 2004). "Further Explanation to the Cosmological Constant Problem by Discrete Space-time Through Modified Holographic Principle". arXiv:physics/0408060.
4. van Calmthout, Martijn (12 December 2009). "Is Einstein een beetje achterhaald?". de Volkskrant (in Dutch). Retrieved 6 September 2010.
5. E.P. Verlinde (2011). "On the Origin of Gravity and the Laws of Newton". JHEP. 2011 (4): 29. arXiv:1001.0785. Bibcode:2011JHEP...04..029V. doi:10.1007/JHEP04(2011)029. S2CID 3597565.
6. Overbye, Dennis (12 July 2010). "A Scientist Takes on Gravity". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 September 2010.
7. E. Verlinde, The Hidden Phase Space of our Universe Archived 17 April 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Strings 2011, Uppsala, 1 July 2011.
8. The entropy force: a new direction for gravity, New Scientist, 20 January 2010, issue 2744
9. Gravity is an entropic form of holographic information, Wired Magazine, 20 January 2010
10. Fu-Wen Shu; Yungui Gong (2011). "Equipartition of energy and the first law of thermodynamics at the apparent horizon". International Journal of Modern Physics D. 20 (4): 553–559. arXiv:1001.3237. Bibcode:2011IJMPD..20..553S. doi:10.1142/S0218271811018883. S2CID 119253807.
11. Rong-Gen Cai; Li-Ming Cao; Nobuyoshi Ohta (2010). "Friedmann Equations from Entropic Force". Phys. Rev. D. 81 (6): 061501. arXiv:1001.3470. Bibcode:2010PhRvD..81f1501C. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.756.6761. doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.81.061501. S2CID 118462566.
12. It from Bit: How to get rid of dark energy, Johannes Koelman, 2010
13. Easson; Frampton; Smoot (2011). "Entropic Accelerating Universe". Phys. Lett. B. 696 (3): 273–277. arXiv:1002.4278. Bibcode:2011PhLB..696..273E. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2010.12.025. S2CID 119192004.
14. Yi-Fu Cai; Jie Liu; Hong Li (2010). "Entropic cosmology: a unified model of inflation and late-time acceleration". Phys. Lett. B. 690 (3): 213–219. arXiv:1003.4526. Bibcode:2010PhLB..690..213C. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2010.05.033. S2CID 118627323.
15. Yi Wang (2010). "Towards a Holographic Description of Inflation and Generation of Fluctuations from Thermodynamics". arXiv:1001.4786 [hep-th].
16. Lee Smolin (2010). "Newtonian gravity in loop quantum gravity". arXiv:1001.3668 [gr-qc].
17. Jarmo Mäkelä (2010). "Notes Concerning "On the Origin of Gravity and the Laws of Newton" by E. Verlinde". arXiv:1001.3808 [gr-qc].
18. Lee, Jae-Weon; Kim, Hyeong-Chan; Lee, Jungjai (2013). "Gravity from quantum information". Journal of the Korean Physical Society. 63 (5): 1094–1098. arXiv:1001.5445. Bibcode:2013JKPS...63.1094L. doi:10.3938/jkps.63.1094. ISSN 0374-4884. S2CID 118494859.
19. Visser, Matt (2011). "Conservative entropic forces". JHEP. 1110 (10): 140. arXiv:1108.5240. Bibcode:2011JHEP...10..140V. doi:10.1007/JHEP10(2011)140. S2CID 119097091., to appear in JHEP
20. Wang, Tower (2012). "Modified entropic gravity revisited". arXiv:1211.5722 [hep-th].
21. Nieuwenhuizen, Theodorus M. (5 October 2016). "How Zwicky already ruled out modified gravity theories without dark matter". Fortschritte der Physik. 65 (6–8): 1600050. arXiv:1610.01543. doi:10.1002/prop.201600050. S2CID 118676940.
22. "Verlinde's new theory of gravity passes first test". phys.org. 16 December 2016.
23. Brouwer, Margot M.; et al. (11 December 2016). "First test of Verlinde's theory of Emergent Gravity using Weak Gravitational Lensing measurements". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 466 (to appear): 2547–2559. arXiv:1612.03034. Bibcode:2017MNRAS.466.2547B. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw3192. S2CID 18916375.
24. "First test of rival to Einstein's gravity kills off dark matter". New Scientist. 15 December 2016. Retrieved 20 February 2017.
25. "Researchers check space-time to see if it's made of quantum bits". Quanta Magazine. 21 June 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
26. Pardo, Kris (4 December 2020) [2 June 2017 (arXiv)]. "Testing emergent gravity with isolated dwarf galaxies". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics. 2020 (12): 012. arXiv:1706.00785. Bibcode:2020JCAP...12..012P. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2020/12/012. ISSN 1475-7516. S2CID 39251260. arXiv accessed 2017-06-22.
27. Parker, M.C.; Jeynes, C. (25 July 2019). "Maximum entropy (most likely) double helical and double logarithmic spiral trajectories in space-time". Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 10779. Bibcode:2019NatSR...910779P. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-46765-w. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6658702. PMID 31346186.
28. Parker, M.C.; Jeynes, C. (21 April 2021). "Entropic uncertainty principle, partition function and holographic principle derived from Liouville's Theorem". Physics Open. 7: 100068. Bibcode:2021PhyO....700068P. doi:10.1016/j.physo.2021.100068. ISSN 2666-0326. S2CID 235090066.
29. Wang, Zhi-Wei; Braunstein, Samuel L. (2018). "Surfaces away from horizons are not thermodynamic". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 2977. arXiv:2207.04390. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.2977W. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-05433-9. PMC 6065406. PMID 30061720.
30. Richard Feynman (lecturer) (1964). The Relation of Mathematics and Physics (filmed lecture). Feynman gives the Messenger Lectures. Vol. #2. Cornell University – via Youtube.
31. Kobakhidze, Archil (2011). "Gravity is not an entropic force". Physical Review D. arXiv:1009.5414.
32. Chaichian, M.; Oksanen, M.; Tureanu, A. (2011). "On gravity as an entropic force". Physics Letters B. 702 (5): 419–421. arXiv:1104.4650. Bibcode:2011PhLB..702..419C. doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2011.07.019. S2CID 119287340.

Further reading

• It from bit – Entropic gravity for pedestrians, J. Koelman
• Gravity: the inside story, T Padmanabhan
• Experiments Show Gravity Is Not an Emergent Phenomenon