Education segregation in the Mississippi Delta

The Mississippi Delta region.

The Mississippi Delta region has had the most segregated schools—and for the longest time—of any part of the United States. As recently as the 2016–2017 school year, East Side High School in Cleveland, Mississippi, was practically all black: 359 of 360 students were African-American.[1]

Background

The Delta region of Mississippi is nineteen counties in the northwest of the state, bounded on the west by the Mississippi River and the south by the Yazoo River. It is a poor region of the country's poorest state. In the center is Sunflower County, which serves as an example for the region. It is consistently 72% Black or African-American at every census. In 1960, the average income of African Americans in Sunflower County was lower than the federal poverty line.[2] Farm mechanization in the first half of the twentieth century, among other things, had made employment prospects bad in the region. As a result, from 1940 to 1970, there was net outward migration to northern and western inner cities and suburbs and from 1970 to present, urban centers in the South outside of Mississippi. The population has been decreasing since 1930. In 1962, a colleague of civil rights worker Charles McLaurin said that Sunflower County was "the worst county in the worst state" for racial discrimination.[3]

The towns in the region were small then and remain so today. Cleveland, Mississippi, population 12,000, has barely enough population to support one high school, much less the two that it supported from 1966 to 2017. Nevertheless, the Delta region has had the most dogged commitment to school segregation of any area of the country.[1]

Brown v. Board of Education had established national education policy in 1954, but the less populated districts of the Delta were not compelled to act until the 1960s. Nevertheless, Robert B. Patterson of Sunflower County[4] began to organize the Citizens' Councils that sponsored segregation academies in Mississippi. Cleveland established its freedom of choice plan and the Cleveland Colored Consolidated High School in 1966.[5]

Before Brown, public education for African-Americans in the Delta was neither compulsory nor free. As a result, many did not attend. Sunflower County estimated that there were 20,473 African Americans between the ages of six through twenty-one; however, only 7,709 of them were enrolled in schools. Tradition played a part; many black children had been employed in agriculture, including the October–November cotton harvest season. Geography played a role: schools were not close enough to walk to and school boards did not always supply buses. And money, too played a role. In 1949–1950, Sunflower County spent the same amount on white education (28% of the population) as it did on the black (72%).[6] Schools asked the parents of black children to pay assessments for heating the schoolhouse.[7] When Gov. Hugh White visited Indianola in 1953, he stated that finding enough money to support the two separate school systems was the biggest financial problem of his administration.[8] In the Delta, Brown was not just about black kids going to school with white kids; in many cases it was about going to school at all.

Segregation after Brown

Sunflower County, Mississippi

Mississippi's first response to Brown was to do nothing and wait for court orders. The Virginia General Assembly, by contrast, implemented the Stanley Plan in 1956 and laws protecting segregation in 1958. Its first segregation academy was started in 1955, with a slew in 1959. In Mississippi, freedom of choice legislation wasn't promulgated until 1965. Mississippi's first segregation academies didn't start opening until 1967. By then Virginia's tuition grant program had been called illegal and tax-exempted status for segregated schools would soon follow.

In 1969, a federal court found Mississippi's tuition grants supporting private schools—segregation academies for the most part—illegal in Coffey v. State Educational Finance Commission.

Later in 1969, U.S. v. Indianola Municipal Separate School District described Mississippi's freedom of choice plan as "constitutionally defective".[9] All over the Delta region, parents started private schools for white children. Population had been declining, so school boards were willing to give away facilities.[dubiousdiscuss]

Sunflower County serves as an example. In 1930, it had a population of 66,000. It had built Inverness High School in 1922.[10] By 1970, its population had shrunk to 37,047. In about 1968, the school district sold Inverness to Central Delta Academy. Along with the other two all-white private schools in the county, Indianola Academy and North Sunflower Academy, those three schools took enough white children from the Sunflower public schools to make an 80-20 mix. The private schools competed for teachers with the public schools. The Sunflower County School District was complying with the big federal rules, but making up its own small ones. Proms and dances were canceled altogether to prevent the remaining white students in the public schools from associating with the black students. However, one of the most damaging effects of this move was on the school board. After forty years of complaints, the state combined the Sunflower, Drew, and Indianola school districts, for example.[11]

Today

In the 2014–2015 school year, public Coahoma Agricultural High School in the north of the region enrolled 267 black students, 1 Hispanic, and no white students.[12]

In Bolivar County, lawyers fought for fifty-one years to keep both Cleveland's two high schools open. Cleveland High School, originally a white school, was by 2015, half and half. By itself, it was a model of success.[1] The town's other high school, East Side had 360 students in 2015, 359 of whom were black. The town had exhausted its legal options. In September 2017, it complied with federal court order and combined the high schools as Cleveland Central High School.

Three miles away, Bayou Academy, founded in 1964, is also a single color. Demographic data for Bayou Academy shows that of the 355 students who attended in the 2015–2016 school year, 4 were black (1%).[13]

In Humphreys County to the north, Humphreys Academy had one black student in its 156 student enrollment (2015–2016).[14]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Lerner, Sharon (February 5, 2016). "A School District That Was Never Desegregated". The Atlantic. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
  2. ^ Moye 2004, pp. 24.
  3. ^ Moye 2004, pp. 20.
  4. ^ Cobb, James C. (December 23, 2010). "The Real Story of the White Citizens' Council". History News Network. Retrieved September 9, 2011.
  5. ^ "Cowan v. Bolivar Objection" (PDF). N.D. Miss. February 13, 2015. Retrieved November 14, 2017.
  6. ^ Moye 2004, pp. 47.
  7. ^ Moye 2004, pp. 48–49.
  8. ^ Moye 2004, pp. 51.
  9. ^ "United States v. Indianola Municipal Separate School District". U.S, Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit. July 25, 1969. Retrieved November 14, 2017.
  10. ^ "Historical population of Sunflower County for period 1850-2014". Population US. Retrieved November 18, 2017.
  11. ^ Wright, Megan (April 20, 2012). "Bryant Signs Bill Forcing Sunflower School Merger". Mississippi Business Journal. Archived from the original on November 7, 2016. Retrieved November 18, 2017.
  12. ^ "School Directory Information 2014-15". National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved December 2, 2017.
  13. ^ "Bayou Academy". Private School Universe Survey. U.S. Department of Education.
  14. ^ "Private School Universe Study". National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved November 17, 2017.

Read other articles:

ミニチュアミュージアム スモールワールズSMALL WORLDS Miniature Museum 施設情報テーマ ミニチュアパークキャッチコピー 見つけた!は宝物になる。アジア最大級のミニチュアミュージアム事業主体 株式会社 SMALL WORLDS面積 約7,000平方メートル開園 2020年6月11日所在地 〒135-0063東京都江東区有明1−3−33 有明物流センター内位置 北緯35度38分16.2秒 東経139度47分18.2秒 / ...

 

Армянский рынок Каменец-Подольский 48°40′24″ с. ш. 26°34′19″ в. д.HGЯO Общая информация Страна Украина Прежние названия1. Армянский рынок2. Соборная площадь 3. Губернаторская площадь 4. Плацпарадная площадь5. Николаевская площадь6. Красная площадь7. Площадь им. Л.Тро...

 

هذه المقالة تحتاج للمزيد من الوصلات للمقالات الأخرى للمساعدة في ترابط مقالات الموسوعة. فضلًا ساعد في تحسين هذه المقالة بإضافة وصلات إلى المقالات المتعلقة بها الموجودة في النص الحالي. (يوليو 2019) هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة ...

KebandinganDesaPeta Desa KebandinganKoordinat: 6°56′38″S 109°12′43″E / 6.943767493158462°S 109.21198120624486°E / -6.943767493158462; 109.21198120624486Negara IndonesiaProvinsi Jawa TengahKabupatenTegalKecamatanKedungbantengPemerintahan • JenisPemerintah Desa Kebandingan • Kepala DesaSutrisnoZona waktuWaktu Indonesia Barat UTC+7 Kebandingan merupakan salah satu desa yang berada di kecamatan Kedungbanteng, Kabupaten Tegal, Provinsi Ja...

 

Tove Jansson, créatrice des Moumines, ici en 1956. Un avion de MD-11 de Finnair décoré avec des Moumines. Les Moumines, ou Moomins (en suédois : Mumintroll ; en finnois : muumi [muumit au pluriel]), sont des personnages créés par la Finlandaise suédophone Tove Jansson. Il s'agit d'une famille de gentils trolls ressemblant à des hippopotames[1],[2],[3]. La famille Moumine Les Moumines vivent dans la vallée des Moumines, vallée imaginaire donnant sur le golfe de Finland...

 

Ranglijsten schaatsen Discipline Senioren Junioren 500m mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes 1000m mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes 1500m mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes 3000m mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes 5000m mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes 10.000m mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes Teamsprint mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes Achtervolging mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes Sprintvierkamp mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes Minivierkamp mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes Kleine vierkamp mannen vrouwen jongens meisjes...

مشروع موسوعة حرة يستطيع الجميع تحريرها. توجد الآن 1٬223٬027 مقالة بالعربية. محتوى متميز · التصنيفات · فهرس أ-ي  أديان  أعلام  تاريخ تقانة  ثقافة  جغرافيا رياضيات  طب  طيران  علوم  رياضة كيمياء  تصفح كل البوابات     عن ويكيبيديا · مرحبًا بال

 

Formal class or program that prepares a new driver for obtaining a license Driver Ed redirects here. For the episode of Veronica Mars, see Driver Ed (Veronica Mars). Driving school redirects here. For other uses, see Driving School (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Driver's education – news · n...

 

American musician (born 1969) This article is about the musician. For the associated band, see Marilyn Manson (band). Not to be confused with Marilyn Mason or Marlyn Mason. Marilyn MansonManson performing in 2017Background informationBirth nameBrian Hugh WarnerBorn (1969-01-05) January 5, 1969 (age 54)Canton, Ohio, U.S.GenresIndustrial metalindustrial rockalternative metalhard rockgothic rockshock rockOccupation(s)SingersongwriteractorpainterwriterYears active1989–presentLabelsNothingI...

Amateur telecommunications protocol Spectrogram (waterfall display) of an Olivia 16/500 signal centered on 7073.25 kHz Olivia MFSK is an amateur radioteletype protocol, using multiple frequency-shift keying (MFSK) and designed to work in difficult (low signal-to-noise ratio plus multipath propagation) conditions on shortwave bands. The signal can be accurately received even if the surrounding noise is 10 dB stronger. It is commonly used by amateur radio operators to reliably transmit ASC...

 

South Korean film director and screenwriter In this Korean name, the family name is Na. Na Hong-jinBorn1974 (age 48–49)Seoul, South KoreaEducationKorea National University of Arts Master degreeOccupation(s)Film director, screenwriterYears active2007–presentKorean nameHangul나홍진Hanja羅泓軫Revised RomanizationNa Hong-jinMcCune–ReischauerNa Hong-chin Na Hong-jin (Korean: 나홍진, born 1974) is a South Korean film director, producer and screenwriter. Na came...

 

Art museum in Sudbury, OntarioArt Gallery of SudburyArt Gallery of Sudbury housed in Belrock MansionEstablished1967Location251 John StreetSudbury, OntarioP3E 1P9TypeArt museumWebsitewww.artsudbury.org The Art Gallery of Sudbury is an art gallery in Greater Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. Established in 1967 by the city's chamber of commerce under the Canadian Centennial projects, the gallery is located in the historic turn of the century arts and crafts movement Belrock Mansion of William J. Bell, ...

Ludwig Pfau Karl Ludwig Pfau (German: [ˈluːtviç ˈpfaʊ] ⓘ; August 25, 1821 – April 12, 1894) was a German poet, journalist, and revolutionary. He was born in Heilbronn and died, aged 72, in Stuttgart. Poetry Some of Ludwig Pfau's poetry has been used in the composition of Kunstlieder (or more popularly in English, Lieder). Many German texts, including texts set to music by Schoenberg, have been collected and housed on-line at The LiederNet Archive. Many are available in En...

 

Bojong RengedDesaNegara IndonesiaProvinsiBantenKabupatenTangerangKecamatanTeluknagaKode pos15512Kode Kemendagri36.03.13.2002 Luas... km²Jumlah penduduk... jiwaKepadatan... jiwa/km² Bojong Renged adalah desa yang berada di kecamatan Teluknaga, Kabupaten Tangerang, Banten, Indonesia. Struktur Pemerintahan Periode 2019-2025 1.Kepala Desa - Suhendra.HMS (Periode 2013-2019 s/d 2019-2025) 2.Sekretaris Desa - Sahroni.Sip 3.Kasi Pemerintahan - Bubun Alhakim 4.Kasi Pelayanan - Sudarma 5.Kasi Ke...

 

7,5 cm kanon PL vz. 37 Jenis Meriam antipesawat Negara asal Cekoslowakia Sejarah pemakaian Masa penggunaan 1937–1950? Digunakan oleh  Czechoslovakia Nazi Germany Kingdom of Italy Finland Pada perang Perang Dunia II Sejarah produksi Perancang Škoda Works Produsen Škoda Works Diproduksi 1937–39? Spesifikasi Berat 2.800 kilogram (6.200 pon) Panjang laras 3,65 meter (10 ft) L/48.7 Selongsong peluru 75 x 656mm R[1] Berat Selongso...

In this Korean name, the family name is Son. Son Woo-hyeon손우현Son in July 2023BornSon Hyeon-seok (1989-11-30) 30 November 1989 (age 34)[1]Seo-gu, Daejeon, South Korea[a]Alma materKookmin University (BA)OccupationsActorsingersongwriterYears active2009-presentAgentKing Kong by Starship (a subsidiary of Starship Entertainment)Notable workNokdu Flower To My StarAwards2017 Seoul Film Festival (SFF) 2nd Place (Is Mr. Kim Dead)Musical careerGenresK-popsoft rocksou...

 

Este artículo o sección necesita referencias que aparezcan en una publicación acreditada.Este aviso fue puesto el 5 de octubre de 2011. Garcibuey municipio de España Vista general de Garcibuey desde El Gancho. GarcibueyUbicación de Garcibuey en España. GarcibueyUbicación de Garcibuey en la provincia de Salamanca.País  España• Com. autónoma  Castilla y León• Provincia  Salamanca• Comarca Sierra de Francia• Partido ...

 

Municipality in Cavite, Philippines This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Silang, Cavite – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Municipality in Calabarzon, PhilippinesSilangMunicipalityMunicipality of Silang(From left, clock...

American television series Man, Woman, WildGenreReality showSurvival skillsCreated byMykel Hawke PierceDirected byMark WestcottDoug McCalliePresented byMykel HawkeRuth EnglandStarringMykel HawkeRuth EnglandNarrated byMykel HawkeRuth EnglandComposerDevin PowersCountry of originUnited StatesOriginal languageEnglishNo. of seasons2No. of episodesTwenty twoProductionExecutive producersDavid Garfinkle, Jay Renfroe, Doug McCallie, Bill HowardProducerTodd CohenProduction locationVariousEditorDan Tivi...

 

Para el marino peruano participante de la Guerra del Pacífico, véase Ramón Freire (marino). Ramón Freire Ramón Freire como director supremo (1826). Presidente Provisional de la República de Chile 25 de enero de 1827-15 de febrero de 1827Gabinete Gabinete ministerial de Ramón FreireVicepresidente Francisco Antonio Pinto DíazPredecesor Agustín de Eyzaguirre(como vicepresidente)Sucesor El mismo Director Supremo de Chile 4 de abril de 1823-9 de julio de 1826Gabinete Gabinete de Ministro...

 

Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!