黑暗觀光

巴黎地下墓穴已成為旅遊業的熱門景點,導遊經常在隧道及墓室內舉行導覽活動及進行解說

黑暗觀光(英語:Dark tourism),又稱黑色旅遊(英語:Black tourism)或悲情旅遊(英語:Grief tourism),意指參訪的地點曾經發生過死亡災難、邪惡、殘暴、屠殺等黑暗事件的旅遊活動[1]。黑暗觀光的概念始於1990年代,基於對歷史的求知慾,或是不尋常事物的迷戀與追求,人們總試著在歷史的黑暗面尋找蛛絲馬跡,當傳統博物館逐漸無法滿足人們這方面的需要時,黑暗觀光便越來越受歡迎[2]。人們能藉由參訪這類曾發生黑暗事件的地點,正確地認識並深入省思歷史上種種黑暗及悲情的一面[3]。而這些景點吸引遊客的主要原因是它們的歷史價值,而非它們與死亡及痛苦之間的聯繫[4]

概念

人類在參觀死亡環境都有著悠久的歷史,包括在羅馬鬥獸場觀看或參與角鬥士遊戲,觀看公開處決,或是參觀地下墓穴等,但相關的學術研究在近代才開始興起。旅遊作家是第一個描述他們到這類致命地方旅遊的人。美國記者P·J·歐魯克指他曾經在1988年到華沙馬拿瓜貝爾法斯特旅遊,並稱此趟行程是「地獄假期」[5]倫敦城市大學社會學教授克里斯·羅傑克(Chris Rojek)亦在1993年談論黑點旅遊等[6]。對於黑暗觀光的學術研究,則起源自蘇格蘭格拉斯哥。1966年,兩名格拉斯哥卡利多尼安大學酒店、旅遊與休閒管理系的教員,馬爾科姆·弗利及J·約翰·列儂創造了「黑暗旅遊」一詞,並指其可以追溯到1815年滑鐵盧戰役時人們在馬車上觀看參戰方之間的戰鬥[7][8]。然後在1996年,蘇格蘭斯特拉斯克萊德大學旅遊營銷學教授A·V·西頓亦提出了類似概念[9]。2006年,英國中央蘭開夏大學的學者菲利普·斯通更把黑暗觀光粗分為六類:戰爭場所、浩劫場景、死亡的遺跡、奴隸制殘景、監獄舊址、以及紀念碑[10][2]

截至2014年,學術界已有很多針對黑暗觀光的定義、標籤及對其子類別的研究,如大屠殺旅遊及奴隸制遺產旅遊等。同年,有學者提出「黑暗觀光」這概念還應包括遊客訪問該景點的原因,因為僅憑景點的特質可能無法使到訪者成為「黑暗遊客」[4]

景點例子

黑暗觀光的景點主要包括墓葬,尤其是能看到遗体和遗骨而不仅为纪念性建筑,如巴勒莫嘉布遣会墓穴;戰場(美國珍珠港美國海軍亞利桑那號戰艦紀念館[2]法國諾曼第[11])、監獄舊址(英國安格爾西島博馬里斯監獄英语Beaumaris Gaol[12]南非羅本島[13]及美國的阿爾卡特拉斯島[13])、發生自然災害或人為災害的地點(日本廣島和平紀念公園[14]烏克蘭切尔诺贝利[15]以及美國九一一襲擊事件原爆點[16])。另外,相關的景點還包括曾發生人類暴行和種族滅絕的地點(波蘭奧斯威辛集中營[17]中國南京大屠殺紀念館[18]柬埔寨吐斯廉屠殺博物館[18])、奴隸制殘景(坦桑尼亞石頭鎮的19世紀奴隸市場[2]加納埃爾米納城堡[19]),以及紀念碑(美國的越戰紀念碑[2]韓國光州民主化運動紀念塔[20])等。

除上述的景點外,與哥倫比亞販毒組織麥德林集團巴勃羅·埃斯科瓦爾之相關地點亦是黑暗觀光的熱門地點,而其前下屬約翰·賈羅·維拉奎茲·巴斯克茲英语Jhon Jairo Velásquez亦有提供「毒品之旅」及模擬偷渡美國[21]。1692年,美國馬薩諸塞州塞勒姆發生了塞勒姆審巫案,該鎮自此便被標籤為女巫鎮,但吸引了不少旅客慕名而至,而當地政府亦為配合遊客的口味而設立女巫博物館、鬼故導賞等景點[22]。另外,北塞浦路斯的鬼城阿莫霍斯托斯、日本的「自殺勝地」青木原樹海以及端島都是熱門地點[23]

批評

儘管在黑暗觀光中遊客能了解相關歷史,但這亦衍生了不少的道德問題。有些旅行社為了吸引更多遊客及增加收入,而歪曲甚至捏造事實,或者增加血腥因素以產生戲劇性效果[24]。另外,有意見認為黑暗觀光是「消費死者」,甚至是「消費受難者的傷痛」[18][25]

參考資料

  1. ^ 墳場、廢墟、集中營_黑暗旅遊正流行. 地球圖輯隊. 2015-01-29 [2017-03-04]. (原始内容存档于2017-03-04) (中文(臺灣)). 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Wang, Elanor. 「接地氣」歷史之旅:「黑暗觀光」與「娛樂化慘劇」只有一線之隔. The News Lens 關鍵評論網. 2019-07-08 [2020-05-14]. (原始内容存档于2020-04-21) (中文(臺灣)). 
  3. ^ 陳貞吟. 黑暗觀光:創傷再現之體驗與詮釋 (PDF). 南華大學旅遊事業管理學研究所. 2009-10-31 [2020-09-13]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-03-20) (中文(臺灣)). 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Isaac, Rami Khalil; Çakmak, Erdinç. Understanding visitor's motivation at sites of death and disaster: the case of former transit camp Westerbork, the Netherlands. Current Issues in Tourism. 2014, 17 (2): 164–179. 
  5. ^ O'Rourke, P. J. Holidays in Hell. London: Atlantic Books Ltd. 1988. ISBN 978-0802137012 (英语). 
  6. ^ Rojek 1993,第142, 170頁.
  7. ^ Foley, Malcolm; Lennon, J. John. JFK and dark tourism: a fascination with assassination. International Journal of Heritage Studies. 1996, 2 (4): 198–211. 
  8. ^ Sampson, Hannah. Dark tourism, explained - Why visitors flock to sites of tragedy. The Washington Post. 2019-11-13 [2020-09-13]. (原始内容存档于2020-07-12) (英语). 
  9. ^ Seaton, A.V. Guided by the dark: From thanatopsis to thanatourism. International Journal of Heritage Studies. 1996, 2 (4): 234–244. 
  10. ^ Stone, Philip. A Dark Tourism Spectrum: Towards a typology of death and macabre related tourist sites, attractions and exhibitions (PDF). Tourism: An Interdisciplinary International Journal. 2006, 54 (2): 145–160 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-06-02). 
  11. ^ Sharples, Liz. Dark holiday: D-Day and the growth of ‘grief tourism’. The Conversation. 2019-06-04 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-02-25) (英语). 
  12. ^ Buzz Magazine. DARK TOURISM IN WALES – A BRIEF GUIDE. 2019-07-31 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-12) (英语). 
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 Strange, Carolyn; Kempa, Michael. Shades of dark tourism: Alcatraz and Robben Island. Annals of Tourism Research. 2003, 30 (2): 386–405. 
  14. ^ Poon, Linda. Hiroshima's Quest to Symbolize Peace, Not Destruction. Bloomberg. 2017-02-15 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-12) (英语). 
  15. ^ Chance, Matthew; Ullah, Zahra. Chernobyl and the dangerous ground of 'dark tourism'. CNN Travel. 2019-06-25 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-07-21) (英语). 
  16. ^ New York Times. Tragedy turns to tourism at Ground Zero. The Age. 2002-06-29 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-12) (英语). 
  17. ^ Sunkara, Lavanya. From Auschwitz To Chernobyl: Tips On Respectfully Visiting Dark Tourism Sites. Forbes. 2019-08-01 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-01-29) (英语). 
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 風起了. 【黑暗旅遊.來稿】喜歡災難死亡?旅遊不應只停留於吃喝玩樂層次. 香港01. 2018-01-30 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-12) (中文(香港)). 
  19. ^ Tourism Review. DARK TOURISM: DISCOVER GHANA’S SLAVE CASTLES. 2012-03-12 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2016-03-14) (英语). 
  20. ^ The Jeju Weekly. Exploitation or healthy interest? An analysis of dark tourism. 2010-06-12 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-02-19) (英语). 
  21. ^ 林通賢. 【非一般旅程】黑幫殺手坐獄後旅遊KOL  日日爆團遊覽黑幫景點. 香港01. 2018-07-23 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-12) (中文(香港)). 
  22. ^ 馮翠山. 萬聖節遊客瘋湧女巫鎮 黑暗旅遊大熱 天災人禍鬼城突變迪士尼. 香港01. 2017-11-01 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-09-12) (中文(香港)). 
  23. ^ Rowney, Jo-Anne. Dark Tourism destinations - from Japan's suicide forest and abandoned island to worshipping Sante Muerte. Mirror. 2018-08-30 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2019-12-04) (英语). 
  24. ^ Reid, Robert. Is 'Dark Tourism' OK?. National Geographic. 2016-04-26 [2020-09-12]. (原始内容存档于2020-07-26) (英语). 
  25. ^ Elkington & Gammon 2013,第54-55頁.

文獻引用

  • Elkington, Sam; Gammon, Sean (编). Contemporary Perspectives in Leisure: Meanings, Motives and Lifelong Learning. New York, NY: Routledge. 2013. ISBN 978-0-415-82987-8 (英语). 
  • Rojek, Chris. Ways of Escape: Modern Transformations in Leisure and Travel. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 1993. ISBN 978-0333475782 (英语). 

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