結構現實主義

結構現實主義(英語:Structural Realism),又稱新現實主義(英語:Neorealism),是一种将安全作为国际关系中最重要因素的理论,而權力是國家追求安全的手段。1979年,肯尼斯·华尔兹出版的著作《国际政治理论》為該理論代表作品。新现实主义与新自由主义一同,成为最具影响力的国际关系理论,主导了国际关系理论的发展。新现实主义,成形于美國政治科学研究,是對古典现实主义的重新阐释。新現實主義,在米爾斯海默區分下,又分为守势現实主义攻勢现实主义

源流

华尔兹,於1979年的奠基作品《國際政治理論英语Theory of International Politics》中,稱自己的理論為「結構現實主義」,但他也有文章自我引述為「新現實主義」。結構現實主義認為古典現實主義化約論(reductionism),是以個體層次(unit level)試圖對整體做出解釋,不能算是真正的理論。

在這樣的概念脈絡下新現實主義轉而從結構的角度來探討國際關係,認為國際關係之結構是由國際政治上權力分配的結果而決定。結構,制約並影響國家之長期戰略與外交政策。國家,為國際關係的主要行為者,但在結構現實主義的框架下,國家間並無功能上的分殊。影響各國對外政策的因素並非國家內部之歧異,而主要是國家在國際結構中所處不同的位置。

理論假說

在保持現實主義以經驗為依據的觀察上,國際關係是由互相對立的關係所組成的。新現實主義者指出這是國際系統的無政府架構造成的。他們拒絕解釋國家內部的特徵,視其為單一完整的行為者。主張國與國之間因為相對利益和平衡而不得不對抗權力的集中。與現實主義不同的是,新現實主義試圖採取科學和更為實證性的方式。

相對收益與絕對收益

結構現實主義重視相對收益;新自由主義(全稱:新自由制度主義 Neo- Liberal Institutionalism)則重視絕對收益

批評

  1. 假設國家是一元化的行為者(unitary actor),實際上國家中的官僚機構、利益團體可能是衝突的,最後作出不理性決策。
  2. 假設國家為理性的行為者,會根據其在體系、結構中的位置考量而理性行為,事實上國家常常不這麼做。
  3. 預測效力上,有見林不見樹的批評。不過簡約性同時也是該理論的優點。
  4. 關於對權力的解釋,傳統現實主義認為對權力的追求根植於人性,權力是國家追求的目的,而新現實主義則強調權力本身不是目的,而是實現國家目標的有效手段,國家追求的最終目標是安全,而不是權力。

主要人物

参考文献

外部連結

Read other articles:

The Park Inn pada 2006, setelah selesainya façade barunya Hotel saat direnovasi, dengan façade 1970 aslinya Park Inn Berlin-Alexanderplatz merupakan bangunan bertingkat tertinggi di Berlin. Hotel bertingkat 41 ini terletak di Alexanderplatz dan memiliki tinggi 132 meter. Dibangun dengan nama Hotel Stadt Berlin', bagian dari organisasi Interhotel Jerman Timur, dari 1967 hingga 1970. Pada tingkat paling atas, terdapat sebuah kasino dan restoran. Pada 1993, setelah penyatuan kembali Jerman, na...

 

Soap opera character Dylan TimminsNeighbours characterPortrayed byDamien BodieDuration2005–2007, 2020First appearance3 February 2005 (2005-02-03)Last appearance19 March 2020 (2020-03-19)ClassificationFormer; regularIntroduced byRic Pellizzeri (2005)Jason Herbison (2020)In-universe informationOccupation Student at Erinsborough High Personal assistant Hot dog seller Co-manager of Lucinda's Cafe Chef FatherKim TimminsMotherJanelle TimminsBrothe...

 

AfrojackAfrojack in 2015LahirNick Leonardus van de Wall9 September 1987 (umur 36)Spijkenisse, BelandaNama lainAfrojack, NLW, KapuchonPekerjaanDJrecord producerremixerTahun aktif2003–presentSuami/istriElettra Lamborghini ​(m. 2020)​PenghargaanFull listKarier musikGenreDutch houseminimal houseelectro houseprogressive housebig room housefuture housedance poptrapfuture bassmoombahtonInstrumenFL StudioLabelWallArmadaIslandDef JamSpinnin'RevealedLDHArti...

Svitlana Azarova Información personalNombre en ucraniano Світлана Анатоліївна Азарова Nacimiento 9 de enero de 1976 (47 años)Izmaíl (Unión Soviética) Nacionalidad Neerlandesa, soviética y ucranianaEducaciónEducada en Conservatorio de ÁmsterdamK. D. Ushynsky South Ukrainian National Pedagogical UniversityOdesa National Music Academy Alumna de Theo Loevendie Información profesionalOcupación Compositora Años activa desde 1999Género Música clásica Sitio web...

 

Form of residence permit Working holiday redirects here. For the album and music festival, see Working Holiday! A working holiday visa is a residence permit allowing travellers to undertake employment (and sometimes study) in the country issuing the visa to supplement their travel funds. For many young people, holding a working holiday visa enables them to experience living in a foreign country without having to find work sponsorship in advance or going on an expensive university exchange pro...

 

У Вікіпедії є статті про інші значення цього терміна: Народна воля (значення). Народна воля Тип організація політичнаЗасновано червень 1879Розпущено березень 1887Ідеологія Лівий тероризм, революційний соціалізмd і аграрний соціалізмdКраїна  Російська імперіяШт...

この記事には複数の問題があります。改善やノートページでの議論にご協力ください。 出典がまったく示されていないか不十分です。内容に関する文献や情報源が必要です。(2013年7月) 独自研究が含まれているおそれがあります。(2013年7月)出典検索?: FMリクエストアワー – ニュース · 書籍 · スカラー · CiNii · J-STAGE · NDL · dlib.jp...

 

Kaligrafi Zaid bin Umar Zaid bin Umar (زيد بن عمر) (lahir pada 23 H) [1] adalah putra dari Khalifah ke-2 Umar bin Khattab. Ibunya adalah Ummu Kultsum binti Ali bin Abi Thalib, putri dari Khalifah ke-4 Ali bin Abi Thalib. Sehingga Zaid bin Umar adalah juga cucu dari Ali bin Abi Thalib sekaligus cicit dari Rasulullah Muhammad. Zaid bin Umar bin Khattab juga digelari Ibnu Al-khalifatain (ابن الخليفتين) artinya Putra dua Khalifah karena Ayahnya (Umar) dan kakeknya dari...

 

Begonia acetosella TaksonomiDivisiTracheophytaSubdivisiSpermatophytesKladAngiospermaeKladmesangiospermsKladeudicotsKladcore eudicotsKladSuperrosidaeKladrosidsKladfabidsOrdoCucurbitalesFamiliBegoniaceaeGenusBegoniaSpesiesBegonia acetosella Craib, 1912 lbs Begonia acetosella adalah spesies tumbuhan yang tergolong ke dalam famili Begoniaceae. Spesies ini juga merupakan bagian dari ordo Cucurbitales. Nama ilmiah spesies ini pertama kali diterbitkan oleh William Grant Craib pada 1912. Referensi ^ ...

Tyler Childers discographyTyler Childers in 2018.Studio albums6Music videos6EPs3Singles6 American country music singer Tyler Childers has released six studio albums, three extended plays, and six singles. He debuted in 2011 with the album Bottles and Bibles through his own label Hickman Holler. The follow-up, 2017's Purgatory, was his most commercially successful, receiving a platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). While not a single, the track Feathe...

 

Indian architect Yahya MerchantBorn1903 (1903)IndiaDied1990(1990-00-00) (aged 86–87)OccupationArchitectBuildings Tomb of Quaid-e-AzamDesignMazar-e-Quaid, Pakistan Raudat Tahera, India Quaid-e-Azam Mausoleum Yahya Merchant (1903–1990) was an Indian Dawoodi Bohra architect.[1] Among his designs are the Quaid-e-Azam Mausoleum for Muhammad Ali Jinnah in Karachi, and the Raudat Tahera Mausoleum for Syedna Taher Saifuddin in Mumbai.[2] References ^ 'You do not know how...

 

Henri II de Lorraine, Duc de Guise, oleh Anthony van Dyck, 1634 Lambang Adipati Guise Henry II de Lorraine, Adipati Guise ke-5 (4 April 1614, di Paris – 2 Juni 1664, di Paris) merupakan seorang aristokrat dan uskup agung berkebangsaan Prancis, ia adalah putra kedua Charles I de Guise dan Henriette Catherine de Joyeuse.[1] Pada usia lima belas tahun, ia menjadi uskup agung Rheims. Menurut Gédéon Tallemant des Réaux, ia memiliki hubungan gelap yang terkenal dengan aktris Marguerite...

Cinnamon bittern Pejantan Betina Status konservasi Risiko Rendah (IUCN 3.1)[1] Klasifikasi ilmiah Kerajaan: Animalia Filum: Chordata Kelas: Aves Ordo: Pelecaniformes Famili: Ardeidae Genus: Ixobrychus Spesies: I. cinnamomeus Nama binomial Ixobrychus cinnamomeus(Gmelin, 1789) Bambangan merah atau Pucung Bendang yang mempunyai nama Latin Ixobrychus cinnamomeus merupakan burung anggota cangak yang berukuran kecil.[2] Daerah pesebarannya berada di kawasan India, China, A...

 

I Campionati europei di scherma sono una competizione sportiva annuale organizzata dalla Confederazione europea di scherma, che si svolge ogni volta in un paese diverso. Nell'ambito di essi vengono assegnati i titoli europei delle diverse specialità della scherma maschile e femminile. Il concorso, creato nel 1981, è rimasto sospeso fra il 1984 e il 1990, per poi riprendere regolarmente e con continuità fin dal 1991. Indice 1 Edizioni 1.1 Medagliere campionati europei 2 Note 3 Voci correlat...

 

Salford City CouncilExecutive mayor elected every four yearsThird of council elected three years out of fourCoat of armsCouncil logoTypeTypeCity council of the Salford Metropolitan Borough HousesUnicameralTerm limitsNoneHistoryFounded1 April 1974; 49 years ago (1974-04-01)LeadershipCivic mayorPaul Dennett, Labour since 6 May 2016 Ceremonial mayorAnne Marie-Humprheys, Labour since 22nd May 2022 Leader of the OppositionRobin Garrido, Conservative Chief executiveTom...

1913 Los Angeles mayoral election ← 1911 May 6, 1913 (1913-05-06) and June 3, 1913 (1913-06-03) 1915 →   Candidate Henry H. Rose John W. Shenk Job Harriman First round 22,04228.01% 35,39544.98% 20,50826.06% Runoff 46,04554.72% 38,10945.29% Eliminated Mayor before election George Alexander Elected Mayor Henry H. Rose Elections in California Federal government U.S. President 1852 1856 1860 1864 1868 1872 1876 1880 1884 1888 1892 1896 1900...

 

State of being able but unmotivated to read Aliteracy (sometimes spelled alliteracy) is the state of being able to read but being uninterested in doing so. This phenomenon has been reported on as a problem occurring separately from illiteracy, which is more common in the developing world, while aliteracy is primarily a problem in the developed world.[1] In 2002, John Ramsey defined aliteracy as a loss of a reading habit usually since reading is slow and frustrating for the reader.[...

 

2009 studio album by BukkcitySame PlaceStudio album by BukkcityReleasedJanuary 2009Recorded2008GenreHip HopLength32:01LabelUnda K9ProducerAvex, Damien Smith, Lui, Weapon X & Bukkcity Same Place is the debut mini-album from Australian-American hip hop artist, Bukkcity. Originally meant for released in October 2008, due to several delays it wasn't released until January 2009, through Australian hip hop label, Unda K9 and MGM Distribution.[1] Track listing All lyrics written ...

Chilean trutruka The trutruka (spanish trutruca) is a wind instrument,[1] part of the trumpet family. It is played mainly amongst the Mapuche of Chile and Argentina. It produces a sound that is loud and severe, with few tonal variations. Description The instrument has two main parts, the body and horn. The body is made from Chilean bamboo (Chusquea culeou) and is between 2 and 5 meters long and 2 to 10 cm in diameter. The cane is cut lengthwise into two halves and then lined with...

 

Wrong number redirects here. For other uses, see Wrong number (disambiguation). A misdialed call or wrong number is a telephone call to an incorrect telephone number. This may occur because the number has been physically misdialled, the number is simply incorrect, or because the area code or ownership of the number has changed. In North America, toll-free numbers are a frequent source of wrong numbers because they often have a history of prior ownership.[1] In the United Kingdom, many...

 

Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!