The English language is tied to a history of war, conquest and complexity. Originating as a Germanic language, the English language has seen a myriad of changes
The English language is tied to a history of war, conquest and complexity. Originating as a Germanic language, the English language has seen a myriad of changes that have been predominantly influenced by Scandinavian invasion and settlement, French invasion and settlement, and various stages of Latin influence from Roman insular and continental borrowings, to the Christianisation of Britain in the 7th century, and the revitalisation of science and learning in the 16th century. These various stages brought with them grammatical and lexical changes, as well as changes in pronunciation. The three stages of English development are known as Old English, Middle English and Modern English. Each stage was highly influenced by the historical circumstances of their respective times.
According to the Anglo-Saxon Chonicles, the Norse invasions started when the raiders arrived at the coast of Dorset in 789.[1] However, this was a smaller invasion in comparison to the later sacking of the monastery at Lindisfarne. [2]These first raids were mainly of Norwegian decent, however from the 860’s onwards, there were several large scale invasions originating from Denmark. The Danes settled mainly in the north and east, which were the regions of Mercia and Northumbria.[3] By the late 870s, the Danes had captured much of Britain. Wessex was the only region which withstood the invasion.[4] Wessex was at the forefront of promoting the written form of the English language. This was fronted by King Alfred of Wessex, who personally transcribed at least four Latin texts to English in attempt to encourage others to do the same.[5] This consequently led to drawing up the treaty of Wedmore 886, where England was partitioned.
The area controlled by the Danish forces became know as Danelaw.[6] Over the next 80 years Wessex began to grow in influence, and finally took control of the Danelaw region in the 950s.[7] However, in the eleventh century due to economic changes in Denmark, there was another invasion led by Cnut and Harthacnut, who went on to become kings of England and Denmark.[8] This short period of dominance was ended when the Normans invaded, and following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, it was the Normans who took control. [9]
Scholars estimate that here are around 400 words originating from Norwegian and Danish that survive in standardised English today.[10] Some common categories for words include the categories of kinship and trade. One way in which we can see the Scandinavian influence is in the names of town and cities. Place names with the suffix – by refer to a village and are often found in areas were Scandinavian invaders had influence.[11] Some examples would be Grimsby and Derby. The other suffix of notice is the suffix- Thorpe, which were secondary settlements, for example Scunthorpe.[12] In both cases these names were given directly by the Scandinavian invaders.
Two common types of loan words are semantic specialisation, where the loan word takes on a more specific meaning, for example, shirt and skirt. The other type are a semantic shift where the meaning changes completely, for example, the Danish word bloom originally meant a mass of metal. [13] This then had a semantic shift to become the word to describe the opening and development of a flower.
anger, bank (of a river), bark (of a tree), booth, brink, bull, cake, dike, dirt, down, gate, gift, husband, kettle, leg, link, loan, loft, race, reindeer, scale, score, scrap, seat, sister, skill, skin, skirt, sky, slaughter, stack, steak, thrift, Thursday, want, whisk, window, wing.[14]
awkward, flat, happy, ill, loose, low, odd, rotten, seemly, tight, ugly, weak, wrong[15]
call, cast, clip, drown, gasp, get, give, glitter, hit, kindle, lift, raise, scare, scrape, seem, take, thrust, want.[16]
nay, though.[17]
One of the most interesting modifications is with the pronouns they, their, and them. These were directly Scandinavian influence and the reason for this change is believed to be that the English words hi, heora, and him, are very similar to he, her, and him. [18] This is interesting as pronouns are normally one of the least malleable forms of languages, and historically speaking, do not tend to change.
There was a Scandinavian influence on the pronunciation of some vowels. Fro example, the (a) sound changed to a (ɔ) before a n, was reversed or inhibited through Scandinavian influence Some examples would be man, bank, land and hand..[19]
There is some evidence to suggest a relation between the Scandinavian (k) with the English (tʃ), for example Kirk andchurch. However, scholars have found it difficult to determine outright how big this influence is. [20]
In the middle of the first century BC, the Roman Empire carried a series of expeditions toward the British Isles. The objective of these expeditions are unknown, but there is a theory that it was an intimidation tactic to prevent the Celts from helping their allies in Gaul. The Romans managed to conquer what is now known as England; however, they stayed within the limits of Scotland and Wales. There is still eviedence of this from the surviving official documentation, which were written in Latin. However, at this time the common language of the people would have been Celtic, as this was spoken by the majority of inhabitants. Latin remained partly influential, but was never the official language. As a result Latin eventually dwindled in influence. For this reason, only a few words of Latin origin were in use at this point. These were in turn inherited through the Celts. Below, a series of words of Latin origin from this period are displayed:
Portus- port
Mons -mountain
Turris- tower
Vicus -village
Castra- Chester
Interestingly, this last term, Chester came to mean a walled city, and was accompanied some toponyms that are currently known as Manchester, Winchester, etc. In the fifth century, some Germanic tribes from Denmark and the Netherlands invaded Great Britain. These tribes had contact with the Romans, and consequently, a large number of words and terms were inherited from Old English. They adopted a large number of customs, especially in the matters of agriculture, war, and trade relations.
In the 3rd century, the British Isles already had an established religion. However, after the 6th century, more monasteries, schools, and churches were created by organised Christian missionaries and communities. The vernacular of the church at the time was Latin, and as a result this was a major influence that resulted in more Latin borrowings and inheritance. Due to this process, Latin words were introduced to the British Isles, especially many related to education and school. All the following words belong to Old English, which were influenced by Latin: school, master, and grammar. Some others are related to nature, clothes, and food, like plant, lobster, pear, cap, and pine.
During the 8th and 9th centuries, the Scandinavian invasion took place, and with it, many changes occurred, but even so, the vocabulary expanded, and with it, a large number of words were added: camel, ginger, cypress, tiger, laurel, etcetera.
For the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, in the stage known as Middle English, Latin continued to be the language of intellectuals and ecclesiastics, despite the series of events generated by the Norman Conquest. A clear example of this influence is the Bible, and the various surviving scripture written in Latin.
During the Renaissance, a series of linguistic characteristics were presented in various literary works, the most famous example being Shakespeare. The use of the Latin terminology in literary works, made them very influential and more widely know. Some examples are; crisis, appendix, exterior, terrible, exotic, climax.
Later, modern English received Latin influence through the vernacular languages, which were mainly Spanish, French, and Italian.
Finally, to end this section, attached are a series of words of Latin origin that are still used in English today:
Anemia
Complex
Input
Frequency
Campus
Calorie
Elevator
Egocentric
Curriculum.
Current
The influence of the French language on the English language is a long and complex topic, with a history that spans over a thousand years. It begins in 1066, with the Norman Conquest of England. The Normans, who were originally Vikings from Northern France, brought their language and culture with them when they conquered England. As a result, French became the language of the English elite, including the nobles and the church, for the next 300 years. The English language of this time period, known as Old English, was heavily influenced by French, with many words and grammatical rules borrowed from the French language. During the 14th and 15th centuries, a significant number of French words were imported into English, especially in the areas of government, law, and the arts. This was due to the fact that the English elite continued to speak French, while the common people spoke a dialect of English known as Middle English. In the 16th century, the English language began to evolve and change more rapidly, and more French words were absorbed into the language. The Renaissance, which began in Italy and spread to France, brought with it an influx of Latin and Greek words, many of which were borrowed into English via French. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the influence of French on the English language slowed down. This is due in part to the fact that the English and French cultures were often at odds, due to the various wars between the two countries. Additionally, the English language had become more standardized, and there was less need to borrow words from other languages. However, French continued to have a significant impact on the development of the English language, particularly in the areas of literature and the arts. French words, grammar and sentence construction were used by many English authors during the time, lending a certain "elegance" to English literature. In the 19th and 20th centuries, French influence on the English language saw a resurgence, particularly in the areas of fashion, cooking, and the arts, as a result of the two countries' cultural exchanges. French words are also commonly used in diplomatic and international business settings, as French was a lingua franca among the educated elite for centuries.
After the migration of the Anglo-Saxons in the fifth century from the Continent to Britain, the Norman Conquest was the single most significant event in the external history of the English language. The Norman Conquest has led to a language that is qualitatively different from what it was before 1066.
The Norman Conquest marked the beginning of a long period of interaction between England and France. Noble English families, most of them of Norman origin, taught their children French or sent them to study in France. The early Norman kings spent more time in Normandy than in England. Royal marriages also encouraged the expansion of the French language in England. From Henry II Plantagenet and Eleanor of Aquitaine in the early 12th century, to Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou in the 15th century, many English kings married French princesses, which kept French as the language of the English court for several centuries, and strengthened its use in England overall.
During the Norman occupation, about 10,000 French words were incorporated into English, about three-quarters of which are still in use today. This French vocabulary is found in every domain, from government and law to art and literature. About one-third of all English words are derived directly or indirectly from French, and it's estimated that English speakers who have never studied French already know 15,000 French words. There are more than
1,700 true cognates, words that are identical in the two languages. There was a praticularly strong influence from cuisine. The following table demonstrates this influence:
| Latin | French | English |
| bos | boeuf | beef |
| nomen | nom | noun |
| ostrea | huitre | oyster |
| rivus | rivère | river |
| minister | ministre | minister |
English Pronunciation owes a lot to French as well. Whereas Old English had the
unvoiced fricative sounds [f], [s], [θ] (as in thin), and [∫] (shin), French influence helped to distinguish their voiced counterparts [v], [z], [ð] (the), and [ʒ] (mirage), and also contributed the diphthong [ɔy] (boy). In Old English, the voiceless spirants [f], [s], [T] and the voiced spirants [v], [z], [ð] were variants (allophones) of the phonemes f/v, s/z, T/ð. In Middle English, borrowings from French introduced words like vēle ‘veal’ and zēle ‘zeal’, with voiced pronunciations in initial positions, contrasting with Anglo-Saxon words fēlen ‘feel’ and sēl ‘seal’. As a result, the allophones f/v and s/z split into separate phonemes: f and v; and s, and z. During the Middle English period, two new diphthongs of French origin were added to those already existing in English: oi, and ui. These diphthongs are reflected in the ModE words like choice, cloister, employ, noise, or rejoice (originally [oi]); and boil, point, joint (originally [ui])
Another rare but interesting remnant of French influence is in the word order of expressions like secretary general and surgeon general, where English has retained the noun + adjective word order typical in French, rather than the usual adjective + noun sequence used in English.
The French influence is most obviously marked in the spelling. The introduction of French spelling conventions gives superficial impression that English changed very rapidly in the years following the Norman Conquest.
Below are examples of English words of French origin:
Government: crown, govern, nation, state (but king, queen, lord, and lady are of Anglo- Saxon origin)
Army: admiral, army, artillery, battle, captain, cavalry, colonel, general, peace, soldier
Church: cloister, friar, religion., saint, service
Law: case, court, crime, heir, justice, judge, jury, marriage, prison, summon
Cuisine: beef, boil, custard, dinner, fry, marmalade, mayonnaise, mustard, mutton, pastry, pork, sauce, soup, supper, veal
Dressing: costume, dress, garment
Art: art, collage, colour, column, paint, palace, vault Moral ideas: charity, conscience, duty, mercy, pity
There are some of the thousands of French words and expressions the English language has adopted. Some of them have been so completely absorbed into English the etymology is not evident. Other words and expressions have retained their written "Frenchness," a certain je ne sais quoi that does not extend to pronunciation, which has assumed English inflections. The following is a list of words and expressions of French origin that are commonly used in English. Each term is followed by the literal English translation in quotation marks and an explanation.
adieu "until God"
Used like "farewell": When you don't expect to see the person again until God (meaning
when you die and go to Heaven)
à la française "in the French manner" Describes anything done the French way
au contraire "on the contrary" Usually used playfully in English.
blond, blonde "fair-haired"
This is the only adjective in English that agrees in gender with the person it
modifies: Blond is for a man and blonde for a woman. Note that these can also be nouns.
bon voyage "good trip"
In English, it would be, "Have a good trip," but Bon voyage is considered more elegant.
brunette "small, dark-haired female"
The French word brun, dark-haired, is what English really means by "brunette
c'est la vie "that's life"
Same meaning and usage in both languages
coup d'etat "state blow"
Overthrow of the government. Note that the last word is capitalized and accented in French: coup d'État.
critique "critical, judgment"
Critique is an adjective and noun in French, but a noun and verb in English; it refers to a critical review of something or the act of performing such a review.
déjà vu "already seen"
This is a grammatical structure in French, as in Je l'ai déjà vu > I've already seen it. In English, déjà vu refers to the phenomenon of feeling like you've already seen or done something when you're sure that you haven't.
Although the Scandinavian, Latin and French are the biggest influence, there are many words and influences which derive from other foreign languages. Here is a short list of examples;
Banshee, bog, clock, craic, cross, Druid, galore, lough, slob, slogan, whiskey.[21]
Pistol, pram, robot, Semtex.[22]
Bamboo, blink, blister, bluff, bully, cramp, cruise, dollar, drill, drug, frolic, geek, grab, hoist, iceberg, kink, landscape, luck, meercat, pickle, pit, rover, scone, sketch, smuggler, split, tattoo, waffle, yacht. [23]
Greek culture is the cradle of our civilization and manifests in many words we currently use.
Antique, geography, grammar, architect, economy, encyclopedia, telephone, and microscope are some English words from classical Greek.
The English language comprises "loans," structures from various languages.
Prominent examples are those words that have prefixes derived from Greek, such as geo, and add another Greek term to form a third term:
geobotanical
geocentric
geochemical
geographical
geopolitical
geothermal
Anime, haiku, karaoke, manga,ramen, tofu, zen. [24]
Balaclava, gulag, intelligentsia, pavlova. [25]
[1] Momma, Hartkopf and Matto Michael (eds.), A Companion to the History of the English Language, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2008, P161.
[2] Knowles, Gerry, A Cultural History of the English Language, Arnold, 1979, P.35.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Momma, Hartkopf and Matto Michael (eds.), A Companion to the History of the English Language, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2008, P154.
[6] Knowles, Gerry, A Cultural History of the English Language, Arnold, 1979, P.35
[7] Knowles, Gerry, A Cultural History of the English Language, Arnold, 1979, P.35.
[8] Ibid.P.37
[9] Ibid.
[10] Ibid. P40.
[11] Miller, D. Gary, External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance, Oxford University Press, 2012. P.102.
[12] Ibid. P 104-5
[13]Knowles, Gerry, A Cultural History of the English Language, Arnold, 1979, P.41
[14] Chamonikolasová, Jana, A Consise History of English, Masarykova univerzita, 2014, P.90
[15] Ibid.
[16] Ibid.
[17] Ibid.
[18] Ibid. P.43.
[19] Miller, D. Gary, External Influences on English: From its Beginnings to the Renaissance, Oxford University Press, 2012. P.119-20
[20] Ibid. P.121
[21] Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Irish_origin, Accessed 21/01/23.
[22] Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Czech_origin, Accessed 21/01/23.
[23] Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Dutch_origin, Accessed 21/01/23.
[24] Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Japanese_origin, Accessed 21/01/23.
[25] Wikipedia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Russian_origin, Accessed 21/01/23.
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