Turk Shahi–Arab Conflicts

Turk Shahi–Arab Conflicts
Date 650–184/185 CE Location Kabul, Ghazni, Gandhara and Kandahar Result Turk Shahi victory Territorial changes Turk Shahis conquered Kabul from Arabs Turk Shahis regain Ghazni after their earlier fall to Umayyad Caliphate. Turk Shahi expands as far as Kandahar. Arabs became vassals of turk shahis
Belligerents
Turk Shahis Zunbil Dynasty (Zunbil Turk Shahi)	Umayyad Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate
Commanders and leaders
Barha Tegin Tegin Shah Fromo Kesaro Bo Furhun  Pati Dumi	Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra Abu Ubayda (POW) Yazid ibn Ziyad † Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra  Ibn al-Ash'ath Qutayba ibn Muslim Yazid ibn al-Ghurayf Harun Al Rashid Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybanl Al-Ma'mun

The Turk Shahi–Arabs Conflicts^[1] a series of military conflicts fought between the forces of the Turk Shahi and the Arabs.

Turk Shahis were affected by the Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent.

  Desert areas (Registan Desert and Thar Desert)

  Zunbils

  Turk Shahis

  Kingdom of Kashmir

  Kingdom of Sindh (c. 632– 711 CE)
then, Caliphal province of Sind (712-854 CE)

  Maitraka dynasty (c.475–c.776 CE)

Background

The Turk Shahis, or Kabul Shahis, were a dynasty of Turkic or mixed Turko-Hephthalite origin^[2] that ruled from Kabul and Kapisa to Gandhara between the 7th and 9th centuries AD.^[3] They may have been of Khalaj ethnicity, and their territory bordered the Kashmir and Kannauj kingdoms.^[4] In the 560s, the Western Turks expanded southeast from Transoxonia, taking control of Bactria and the Hindu Kush, forming independent states. The Turk Shahis possibly emerged as an extension of the Western Turk Yabghus of Tokharistan and replaced the Nezak Huns, the last rulers of Bactria.^[1]

The Turk Shahis came to power after the Sasanian Empire fell to the Rashidun Caliphate and resisted the Abbasid Caliphate’s eastward expansion for over 250 years.^[1] Eventually, in the 9th century AD, the dynasty fell to the Persian Saffarids.

The Conflicts

Barha Tegin Conflict with Arabs

Under Barha Tegin, the Shahis launched a counter-attack and drove the Arab forces out after Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura was replaced as Governor of Sistan around 665 CE. They regained lost territory, including areas like Arachosia and Kandahar. The capital was moved from Kapisa to Kabul.^[5][1][2] In 671 CE, when Rabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithi became the governor of Sistan, the Arabs tried to attack again, fighting the Turkic leader "Rutbil" at Bost and forcing him to retreat to al-Rukhkhaj (Arachosia).^[6] Rabi's successor, Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra, continued the fighting in 673 CE, leading Rutbil to agree to a peace deal.^[2] The agreement gave control of Kabul and Zabul to Rutbil and the King of Kabul, with the governor of Sistan recognizing their authority. Not much is known about Barha Tegin's rule, but many early Turk Shahi coins are linked to him.

Tegin Shah Conflict with Arabs

Tegin Shah became the ruler around 680, after his father. His land included the areas from Kabulistan to Gandhara, and at first, it also included Zabulistan. His older brother, Rutbil, who founded the Zunbil dynasty, ruled Zabulistan.^[7] Although their relationship was sometimes hostile, they worked together to fight off Arab attacks.^[3][8]

In 683, the Arabs tried again to capture Kabul and Zabulistan, but their general Abu Ubaida ibn Ziyad was captured in Kabul, and Yazid ibn Ziyad, the governor of Sijistan, was killed while attacking the city.^[1][9] For a short time in 684–685, the Arabs took control of Kabul.^[9] In 698, the Umayyad general Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakra led an army against the Zunbils, but he was defeated and had to pay a large tribute, give hostages, including three of his sons, and promise not to invade Zunbil again.^[10] Around 700, Ibn al-Ash'ath tried again to invade with the 'Peacock Army,' but after making some progress, he reached a peace deal with the Turks and later led a rebellion against the Umayyad viceroy, al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf.

By around 710, Tegin Shah regained control over Zabulistan. Chinese records say that the rulers of Zabulistan submitted to Kabul between 710 and 720. During this time, the Zunbils and Turk Shahis sometimes paid taxes to the Arabs, acknowledging some control, but resisted when the Arabs tried to take more power over them.^[11]

Arab Invasion of Zunbil Turk Shahi

The Arabs often claimed control over the Zunbils. In 711, Qutayba ibn Muslim made the Zunbils pay tribute.^[12] However, in 725–726, Yazid ibn al-Ghurayf, the governor of Sistan, was unable to do the same.^[12] The Arabs would not receive tribute from the Zunbils again until 769 CE, when Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybani defeated them near Ghazni.^[12]

Fromo Kesaro Victory over Arabs

Royal figure with triple-crescent crown and halo, wearing a double-lapel caftan and boots, accompanied by a figure in armour. This is a possible depiction of Sun and Moon deities, showing Central Asian influence. Mural from the Fondukistan monastery, circa 700 AD.^[13][14] Similarities can be seen with the Kizil Caves knights, indicating the continuity of Central Asian art under the patronage of the Western Turks.^[15]

In 739 CE, Tegin abdicated in favour of his son Fromo Kesaro:^[a]

In the 27th year [of Kaiyuan, ie 739 CE], the king Wusan Tela Sa [for Khorasan Tegin Shah] submitted a memorial requesting that due to his old age, his son Fulin Jisuo may succeed him on the throne. The emperor agreed and dispatched an envoy in order to confer the king's title on him through an imperial edict.

— Old Book of Tang, Book 198.^[16][17]

"Fromo Kesaro" is probable phonetic transcription of "Rome Caesar".^[1][18] He was apparently named in honor of "Caesar", the title of the then East Roman Emperor Leo III the Isaurian who had defeated their common enemy the Arabs during the Siege of Constantinople in 717 AD, and sent an embassy to China through Central Asia in 719 AD which probably met with the Turk Shahis.^[1][b]

Fromo Kesaro seems to have successfully fought against the Arabs. His coins suggest that the Arabs were defeated and had to pay tribute to him. This is shown by Sasanian coins and coins from Arab governors, which were overstruck by Fromo Kesaro with a message in the Bactrian script.^[19][18][20]

Sasanian drachm with Fromo Kesaro obverse and reverse rim overstrike in Bactrian.^[21][22]

Obverse: ϕρoµo κησαρo βαγo χoαδηo κιδo βo ταzικανo χoργo
Reverse: oδo σαo βo σαβαγo ατo ι µo βo γαινδo

Fromo Kesaro, the Majestic Sovereign, [is] who defeated the Arabs and laid a tax [on them]. Thus they sent it.

— Rim legend of Sasanian and Arab coins overstruck by Fromo Kesaro^[23][22][c]

Bo Fuzhun Conflict with Arabs

In 745 AD, Bo Fuzhun, the son of Fromo Kesaro, became the king, according to the Old Book of Tang.^[e].He was also given the title "General of the Left" by the Tang dynasty, which suggests a close relationship between the Chinese and the Turk Shahis, especially as the Islamic empires were expanding.^[9]

Around 760 AD, the Chinese left the region after being defeated at the Battle of Talas in 751 AD and dealing with the An Lushan Rebellion. This weakened the Turk Shahis' power.^[25] Between 775 and 785 AD, a ruler of Kabul, possibly named Hanhal, Khinkhil, Khingil, or Khingal, received a proposal from the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mahdi asking for his submission.^[f][28] He was either a unique ruler of the Turk Shahis or identical with Bo Fuzhun.^{[28][29][30][31][32]} This ruler agreed, and he might have been the same person as Bo Fuzhun.^[33][34][35]

Abbasids Invasion of Zunbil Turk Shahi

After the Abbasids took control in 750, the Zunbils formally submitted to the third Abbasid Caliph al-Mahdi (reigned 775–785), but these submissions were likely not sincere. The people in the region continued to resist Muslim rule. The Muslim historian Ya'qubi (died 897/8) in his Ta'rikh ("History") mentions that al-Mahdi asked for, and seemingly received, the submission of several rulers from Central Asia, including the Zunbils.^[36]

Al-Mahdī sent messengers to the kings, calling on them to submit, and most of them submitted to him. Among them were the king of Kābul Shāh, whose name was Ḥanḥal; the king of Ṭabaristān, the Iṣbahbadh; the king of Soghdia, the Ikhshīd; the king of Tukhāristān, Sharwin; the king of Bamiyan, the Shīr; the king of Farghana, ------ ; the king of Usrūshana, Afshīn; the king of the Kharlukhiyya, Jabghūya; the king of Sijistān, Zunbīl; the king of Turks, Tarkhan; the king of Tibet, Ḥ-h-w-r-n; the king of Sind, al-Rāy; the king of China, Baghbür; the king of India and Atrāḥ, Wahūfūr; and the king of the Tughuz-ghuz, Khāqān.

— Ya'qubi (died 897/8), Ta'rikh ("History")^[26][37]

In 769 CE, the Arabs were able to get tribute from the Zunbils again after almost 50 years, when Ma'n b. Za'ida al-Shaybani defeated them near Ghazni.^[12]

Arab attacks are recorded around 795 CE. The Muslim writer Kitāb al-Buldan tells of the destruction of a place called Sah Bahar, believed to be Tepe Sardar. The Arabs attacked the Sah Bahar, where people worshipped idols, and they destroyed and burned them.^[38]

Harun Al Rashid Expeditions against Turk Shahis

Harun Al Rashid led Two Expedition against the Turk Shahis in one in 769 and another in 786 in both the expeditions Arabs were defeated and the Invasion was repulsed.

Renewed conflict with the Arabs and decline of Turk Shahis and Failure against Zunbil Turk Shahis

Funerary stele of a royal couple in the Buddhist Fondukistan monastery, dedicated around the end of the 7th century CE under the Turk Shahis. King wearing a Central Asian caftan with double lapel, a belt and pointed boots, and Queen of Indian type, holding hands over cushions. Circa 700 AD.^[13][39][40]

The conflict between the Arabs and the Turk Shahis continued into the 9th century AD.^[1] During the Great Abbasid Civil War (811-819 AD), the Turk Shahis, called "Pati Dumi" in Arab sources, took advantage of the situation and invaded parts of Khorasan.^[41] After the Abbasid caliph Al-Ma'mun won the Civil War, he sent troops to fight the Turk Shahis. In 814/815 AD, the Arabs defeated the Turk Shahis and pushed into Gandhara.^[41] As a result, the Turk Shahi ruler had to convert to Islam, pay an annual tribute of 1,500,000 dirhams and 2,000 slaves, and give a valuable idol made of gold, silver, and jewels to be sent to Mecca. This story was first told by Al-Azraqi in 834 AD, and later written by Quṭb ed-Dîn.

Now, when this King converted to Islam, he decided that the throne with the idol should be given as an offering for the Ka'ba. He therefore sent the throne to Al-Ma'mun in Merv, who then sent it to Al-Hasan ibn Sahl in Wasit, who in turn charged one of his lieutenants from Balkh, Naçîr ben Ibrahim, with accompanying it to Mecca. This lieutenant arrived there in the year AH 201 (816 AD) during the time of pilgrimage when Isḥâḳ ben Mûsá ben ´Isá was leading the pilgrims to the holy sites. When they returned from Mina, Naçîr ben Ibrahim placed the throne with the carpet and the idol in the center of the square dedicated to Omar Ibn Al-Khattab, between Safa and Marwa, where it remained for three days.

— Quṭb ed-Dîn, History of the city of Mecca^[42]

Al-Azraqi also gave a detailed description of a statue, which shows a Buddha wearing a crown and jewels while sitting on a throne. This design is well-known and typical for the time period in the regions of Afghanistan and Kashmir.^[43] Another military campaign against the Gandhara area likely happened soon after, with the Caliphate reaching the Indus River and dealing a major defeat.^[44]

The Zunbils repulsed the Al-Ma'mun's raids and kept ruling for about 20 more years. However, they later became involved in a conflict with Saffarids that led to their downfall.^[44]

Aftermath

Establishment of Hindu Shahis

The Turk Shahis were in a difficult situation, and around 843 CE, the last ruler, Lagaturman, was overthrown by one of his ministers, a Brahmin named Kallar.^[44][45] According to the historian Al-Biruni, Lagaturman’s bad behavior led his people to complain to Kallar. Kallar found a hidden treasure and used it to gain power.^[46] He imprisoned the king for corruption and became the regent before taking the throne for himself. Kallar then started a new dynasty called the "Hindu Shahi" in Gandhara. No other sources mention Kallar, and little is known about his rule, the areas he controlled, or how long he ruled.^[44]

Fall of Zunbil Turk Shahis

In 870 AD, the Muslim leader Yaqub bin Laith al-Saffar defeated the Zunbils, a group in eastern Afghanistan. Yaqub, who was the founder of the Saffarid dynasty, began his conquests by first defeating the Kharijites in Herat and then moving on to other areas. He conquered the Zunbil territory in Ghazna, then advanced to Bamyan and Kabul, pushing the Hindu Shahis further east.^[47] By 870 AD, Yaqub controlled all of Khorasan and the Panjshir Valley, allowing him to mint silver coins.^[44]

This marked the first time Muslim forces successfully expanded into eastern Afghanistan after over 200 years of resistance from local rulers. The Hindu Shahis continued to resist the spread of Islam until around 1026 AD.

Notes

1. Martin 2011, p. 127 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMartin2011 (help):"He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
2. Martin 2011, p. 127 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMartin2011 (help):"He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
3. The study of these new coins originally appeared in "New Coins of Fromo Kēsaro" by Helmut Humbach in: G. Pollet (ed.), "India and the Ancient World. History, trade and culture before A.D. 650". Professor P.H.L. Eggermont jubilee volume. Leuven 1987, 81-85, plates. XI-XIII
4. Tianbao (天寶, 742–756), era name used by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang

5. 天寶四年，又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王，仍授左驍衛將軍
   In the 4th year of the Tianbao reign [745 CE]^[d] another imperial edict was issued to make his [i.e. Fromo Kesaro's] son Bo Fuzun succeed him on the throne as the King of Jibin and Uddiyana. He was conferred the title of "General of Left Stalwart Guard".

   — Old Book of Tang, Book 198.^[16][24]

6. Al-Mahdī sent messengers to the kings, calling on them to submit, and most of them submitted to him. Among them were the king of Kābul Shāh, whose name was Ḥanḥal; the king of Ṭabaristān, the Iṣbahbadh; the king of Soghdia, the Ikhshīd; the king of Tukhāristān, Sharwin; the king of Bamiyan, the Shīr; the king of Farghana, ------ ; the king of Usrūshana, Afshīn; the king of the Kharlukhiyya, Jabghūya; the king of Sijistān, Zunbīl; the king of Turks, Tarkhan; the king of Tibet, Ḥ-h-w-r-n; the king of Sind, al-Rāy; the king of China, Baghbür; the king of India and Atrāḥ, Wahūfūr; and the king of the Tughuz-ghuz, Khāqān.

   — Ya'qubi (died 897/8), Ta'rikh ("History")^[26][27]

References

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15. Bosworth also says that the "Ephthalites were incapable of such work" in Bosworth, C. Edmund (15 May 2017). The Turks in the Early Islamic World. Routledge. p. 145. ISBN 978-1-351-88087-9.
16. Balogh 2020, p. 104.
17. Original Chinese: 二十七年，其王乌散特勒洒以年老，上表请以子拂菻罽婆嗣位，许之，仍降使册命。"卷一百九十八 列传第一百四十八_旧唐书". www.guoxue123.com.
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31. 天寶四年,又冊其子勃匐準為襲罽賓及烏萇國王,仍授左驍衞將軍。"Kesar's son Bo Fuzhun succeed him on the throne as the king of Jibin and Wuchang. He was conferred the title General of the Left Stalwart Guard" in Balogh 2020, p. 104
32. Rezakhani, Khodadad (15 March 2017). ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-4744-0031-2.
33. "The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012-2013 exhibit: 15. The Rutbils of Zabulistan and the "Emperor of Rome"". July 2017. Archived from the original on 2017-08-02. Retrieved 2024-12-09.
34. Inaba, Minoru. "From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Cenral Asia": 446. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
35. Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017-03-15). ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity. Edinburgh University Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-1-4744-0031-2.
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40. A recent highly detailed view: "Les trésors sataniques - Satanic treasures – Patrick Chapuis Photographe". patrickchapuis.photoshelter.com.
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42. transl. from Wüstenfeld (Wüstenfeld, III, 186: 190–191). The transcription of the Arabic follows Wüstenfeld. in Klimburg-Salter, Deborah (210). "Cultural Mobility, a Case Study: the Crowned Buddha of the Kabul Shāh" in: Coins, Art and Chronology II The First Millennium C.E. in the Indo-Iranian Borderlands. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften. pp. 42–43.
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