Ubykh nouns do not mark plurality and the only case that displays plurality is the relational suffix -/nɜ/. Otherwise plurality is shown either by suppletive verb roots (e.g. /ɐkʷɨnblɜs/ 'he is in the car' vs. /ɐkʷɨnblɜʒʷɜ/ 'they are in the car') or by verb suffixes: /ɐkʲʼɜn/ ('he goes'), /ɐkʲʼɐn/ ('they go').
Definiteness
The definite article is /ɐ/ (e.g. /ɐtɨt/ 'the man'). There is no indefinite article directly equivalent to the English a or an, but /zɜ/-(root)-/ɡʷɜrɜ/ (literally 'one'-(root)-'certain') translates French un : e.g. /zɜnɜjnʃʷɡʷɜrɜ/ ('a certain young man').
Cases
There are two core cases and four non-core cases in Ubykh. The core cases are: relational, absolutive; the non-core cases are: adverbial, locative, instrumental, and instrumental-comitative.
Ubykh cases
singular
plural
relational
-/n/
-/nɜ/
absolutive
-/Ø/
adverbial
-/n(ɨ)/
locative
-/ʁɜ/
instrumental
-/ɜwn(ɨ)/
instrumental-comitative
-/ɐlɜ/
Relational case
This case displays ergative, genitive, and dative functions. It is marked with -/n/ in the singular and -/nɨ/ in the plural and is the only case that has a distinction in plurality.
/sɨtʷ
/sɨ-tʷ
1stPOSS-father.ABS
amɨzɨn
a-mɨzɨ-n
the-child-ERG
jɨbjɜqʼɜ/
Ø-jɨ-bjɜ-qʼɜ/
(s)he saw
/sɨtʷ amɨzɨn jɨbjɜqʼɜ/
/sɨ-tʷ a-mɨzɨ-n Ø-jɨ-bjɜ-qʼɜ/
1stPOSS-father.ABS the-child-ERG {(s)he saw}
"My father saw the child."
Absolutive case
Marked with the bare root; this indicates the subject of an intransitive sentence and the direct object of a transitive sentence (e.g. /tɨt/ 'a man').
/sɨtʷ
/sɨ-tʷ
1stPOSS-father.ABS
ɐkʲʼɜqʼɜ/
ɐ-kʲʼɜ-qʼɜ/
(s)he went
/sɨtʷ ɐkʲʼɜqʼɜ/
/sɨ-tʷ ɐ-kʲʼɜ-qʼɜ/
1stPOSS-father.ABS {(s)he went}
"My father went."
Adverbial case
This is marked with -/n(ɨ)/ and has the primary function of marking essive and translative functions of nouns.
Locative case
Marked in -/ʁɜ/, which is the equivalent of English in, on or at.
Instrumental case
Marked with -/ɜwn(ɨ)/ and was also treated as a case in Dumézil (1975). This is similar to "by means of" in English.
Instrumental-Comitative case
Marked with -/ɐlɜ/ and broadly means "with".
Other suffixes
There is also a pair of suffixes that have been noted to be synthetic datives but are not cases in their own right: -/lɐq/ ('to[wards]') and -/ʁɐfɜ/ ('for') e.g. /ɜχʲɨlɐqɐstʷɜdɜw/ 'I will send it to the prince'.
Adjectives
In Ubykh, adjectives do not decline in any way and are suffixed to the noun that they modify: /tʃɨbʒɨjɜ/ ('pepper') with /pɬɨ/ ('red') becomes /tʃɨbʒɨjɜpɬɨ/ ('red pepper').
Pronouns
Free pronouns in all North-West Caucasian languages lack an ergative-absolutive distinction.[1]
Free personal pronouns
1st Person
2nd Person
3rd Person
Normal
Jocular
Singular
Standard
/s(ɨ)ʁʷɜ/
/(w(ɨ))ʁʷɜ/
/χɜʁʷɜ/
/ɐʁʷɜ/
Ali Bilaş
/(s)χɜ/
Plural
Standard
/ʃɨʁʷɜɬɜ/
/ɕʷɨʁʷɜɬɜ/
/ɐʁʷɜɬɜ/
Tevfik Esenç
/ʃɜɬɜ/
/ɕʷɜɬɜ/
Osman Güngür
/ʃɨʁʷɜ/
/ɕʷɨʁʷɜ/
The "standard" pronouns are displayed along with variations that particular speakers used due to rapid speech. All speakers condemned Tevfik Esenç's usage of /ʃɜɬɜ/ and he even accepted the correction but all recordings of Tevfik contain /ʃɜɬɜ/ regardless.
Possessive
Possessive pronouns
1st Person
2nd Person
3rd Person
Normal
Jocular
Singular
/sɨ/-
/wɨ/-
/χɜ/-
/ʁɜ/-
Plural
/ʃɨ/-
/ɕʷɨ/-
/ɐʁɜ/-
Possessed nouns have their plurality marked with the affix /-ɜw-/.
/ʃɜwtʃɨ/
/ʃ(ɨ)-ɜw-tʃɨ/
1pPOSS-PL-horse
/ʃɜwtʃɨ/
/ʃ(ɨ)-ɜw-tʃɨ/
1pPOSS-PL-horse
Our horses
Verbs
Verb Template
The Ubykh verb template is quite complex with 26 slots for the verb.
Interrogative / subordinative prefixes
absolutive agreement marker or a prefixed interrogative pronoun
Oblique-1 marker agreeing with slot 4
Relational preverb
Incorporated noun or Oblique-2 marker
Local preverb
/ʁɜ/- or /ɐ/-
Generic preverb /lɜ/
Orientational preverb /jɨ/-
Ergative preverb marker
Negation in the dynamic and imperfect tenses or polite imperative
Causative
stem
Intensifying suffix
Habitual aspect
Iterative aspect
Exhaustive aspect
Excessive aspect
Continual aspect
Potential aspect
Plural marker
Tense
Plural marker for dynamic past, conditional II, and stative present.
Negation in all tenses except for dynamic present
Affect marker
Mood or converb markers
Conjunctive elements
Agreement
Oblique 1 markers are limited to marking the agreement of a noun before a relational preverb and Oblique 2 markers are used for not only marking agreement with local and directional preverbs but also the simple oblique, or dative, arguments.[1]
Pronominal Agreement Markers
Absolutive
Oblique (1 and 2)
Ergative
First Person
sg.
/s(ɨ)/-
/s(ɨ)/- ~ /z/
/s(ɨ)/- ~ /z/
pl.
/ʃ(ɨ)/-
/ʃ(ɨ)/- ~ /ʒ/-
/ʃ(ɨ)/- ~ /ʒ/-
Second Person
sg.
/wɨ/-
/w(ɨ)/-
/w(ɨ)/-
pl.
/ɕʷ(ɨ)/-
/ɕʷ(ɨ)/- ~ /ʑʷ(ɨ)/-
/ɕʷ(ɨ)/- ~ /ʑʷ(ɨ)/-
sg. (joc., arc.)
/χɜ/-
/χɜ/-
/χɜ/-
Third Person
sg.
/ɐ/-,/jɨ/-,/ɨ/-,/Ø/-
/Ø/-
n(ɨ)/-/Ø/-
pl.
/ɐ/-,/jɨ/-,/Ø/-
/ɐ/-
/ɐ/-,/nɐ/-
The second-person /χɜ/- is an archaic pronoun used to indicate that the person being referred to is a female, or heckling the speaker in some way. It became extinct before the death of the language due to all of the last speakers being male.
The third person agreement markers have a fair amount of variation due to the rules it must follow.
absolutive markers
Marker
Rule
Example
/ɐ/-
No other third person object is present in the sentence.
/ɐ-qʼɜ-qʼɜ/ "(s)he said" – /ɐ-z-bjɜ-n/ "I see it"
/jɨ/-
Appears when the following marker is also third person singular.
/jɨ-Ø-jɜ-qʼɜ/ "X hits Y"
/ɨ/-
This is a rare allophone of /jɨ/- and usually appears when the marker carries stress.
/ɨ́-Ø-tʷʼɜ-qʼɜ/ "X digs Y"
/Ø/-
This appears when the following marker is third person plural.
/Ø-ɐ́-ʃ-tʷʼɨ-n/ "we give X to them"
The plural markers exist in the same rules as the singular rules with the exception that singular /ɐ/- can be deleted but plural /ɐ/- cannot.
Dynamic Verb Conjugation
Dynamic Ubykh verbs are split up in two groups: Group I which contain the simple tenses and Group II which contain derived counterpart tenses. Only the Karaclar dialect uses the progressive tense and the plural is unknown.
The singular-plural distinction is used when the subject, the ergative, is singular or plural.
Square brackets indicate elided vowels; parenthesis indicate optional parts of the stem; and the colon indicates the boundary of a morpheme.[1]
verb conjugation
Group I
Singular
Plural
Simple Past
-/qʼɜ/
-/qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/
Mirative Past
-/jtʼ/
-/jɬ(ɜ)/
Present
-/n/
-/ɐ-n/
Future I
-/ɜw/
-/n[ɜ]-ɜw/
Future II
-/ɜw:t/
-/n[ɜ]-ɜw:t/
(Progressive)
-/ɜwɨ:n/
?
Group II
Pluperfect
-/qʼɜ:jtʼ/
-/qʼɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/ ~ -/qʼɜ:nɜ:jtʼ/
Imperfect
-/nɜ:jtʼ/
-/ɐ-nɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/
Conditional I
-/ɜwɨ:jtʼ/
-/n[ɜ]-ɜwɨ:jɬ(ɜ)/
Conditional II
-/ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/
-/(n[ɜ]-)ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ(-n)/
Simple Past
The verbs in the simple past tense are conjugated with -/qʼɜ/ in the singular and -/qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/ in the plural.
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼɜ-qʼɜ/ (s)he said
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ/ (s)he ate
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼɜ-qʼɜ/ (s)he knew
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼɜ-qʼɜ/ (s)he went
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ/
I ate
Second-person
/wɨ-fɨ-qʼɜ/
you ate
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ/
(s)he ate
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/
we ate
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/
you (all) ate
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ-n(ɜ)/
they ate
Mirative Past
The verbs in the mirative past tense are conjugated with -/jtʼ/ in the singular and -/jɬ(ɜ)/ in the plural.
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼɜ-jtʼ/ (s)he said apparently
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-fɨ-jtʼ/ (s)he ate apparently
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼɜ-jtʼ/ (s)he knew apparently
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼɜ-jtʼ/ (s)he went apparently
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-fɨ-jtʼ/
I ate apparently
Second-person
/wɨ-fɨ-jtʼ/
you ate apparently
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-jtʼ/
(s)he ate apparently
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/
we ate apparently
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/
you (all) ate apparently
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-jɬ(ɜ)/
they ate apparently
Present
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/n/ in the singular and -/ɐ-n/ in the plural.
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼɜ-n/ (s)he says
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-fɨ-n/ (s)he eats
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼɜ-n/ (s)he knows
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼɜ-n/ (s)he goes
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-fɨ-n/
I eat
Second-person
/wɨ-fɨ-n/
you eat
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-n/
(s)he eats
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/
we eat
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-n/
you (all) eat
Third-person
/ɐ-f-ɐ-n/
they eat
Future I
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/ɜw/ in the singular and -/n[ɜ]-ɜw/ in the plural. It conveys a sense of certainty, immediacy, obligation, or intentionality.
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼ-ɜw/ (s)he certainly will say
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-f-ɜw/ (s)he certainly will eat
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼ-ɜw/ (s)he certainly will know
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼ-ɜw/ (s)he certainly will go
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-f-ɜw/
I certainly will eat
Second-person
/wɨ-f-ɜw/
you certainly will eat
Third-person
/ɐ-f-ɜw/
(s)he certainly will eat
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/
we certainly will eat
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/
you (all) certainly will eat
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/
they certainly will eat
Future II
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/ɜw:t/ in the singular and -/n[ɜ]-ɜw:t/ in the plural. It conveys a generic sense of the future as well as an exhortative sense such as: /ʃɨ-kʲʼɜ-n[ɜ]-ɜw/ (let's go!).
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼ-ɜw:t/ (s)he will say
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-f-ɜw:t/ (s)he will eat
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼ-ɜw:t/ (s)he will know
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼ-ɜw:t/ (s)he will go
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-f-ɜw:t/
I will eat
Second-person
/wɨ-f-ɜw:t/
you will eat
Third-person
/ɐ-f-ɜw:t/
(s)he will eat
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw:t/
we will eat
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw:t/
you (all) will eat
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜw:t/
they will eat
Pluperfect
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/ɜw/ in the singular and -/n[ɜ]-ɜw/ in the plural. It conveys [TODO]
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼɜ-qʼɜ:jtʼ/ (s)he had said
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-f-qʼɜ:jtʼ/ (s)he had eaten
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼɜ-qʼɜ:jtʼ/ (s)he had known
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼɜ-qʼɜ:jtʼ/ (s)he had gone
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ:jtʼ/
I had eaten
Second-person
/wɨ-fɨ-qʼɜ:jtʼ/
you had eaten
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ:jtʼ/
(s)he had eaten
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/
we had eaten
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-qʼɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/
you (all) had eaten
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-qʼɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/
they had eaten
Imperfect
The verbs in the imperfect tense are conjugated with -/nɜ:jtʼ/ in the singular and either -/ɐ-nɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/ in the plural. It conveys a sense of
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼ-nɜ:jtʼ/ (s)he was saying, (s)he used to say
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-f-nɜ:jtʼ/ (s)he was eating, (s)he used to eatk
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼ-nɜ:jtʼ/ (s)he was knowing, (s)he used to know
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼ-nɜ:jtʼ/ (s)he was going, (s)he used to go
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-fɨ-nɜ:jtʼ/
I was eating, I used to eat
Second-person
/wɨ-fɨ-nɜ:jtʼ/
you were eating, you used to eat
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-nɜ:jtʼ/
(s)he was eating, (s)he used to eat
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-nɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/
we were eating, we used to eat
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-f-ɐ-nɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/
you (all) were eating, you (all) used to eat
Third-person
/ɐ-f-ɐ-nɜ:jɬ(ɜ)/
they were eating, they used to eat
Conditional I
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/ɜwɨ:jtʼ/ in the singular and -/n[ɜ]-ɜwɨ:jɬ(ɜ)/ in the plural. It conveys a sense of uncertainty but also a kind of future-in-the-past if the situation had been reversed.
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼ-ɜwɨ:jtʼ/ (s)he would have said
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-f-ɜwɨ:jtʼ/ (s)he would have eaten
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼ-ɜwɨ:jtʼ/ (s)he would have known
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼ-ɜwɨ:jtʼ/ (s)he would have gone
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-fɨ-ɜwɨ:jtʼ/
I would have eaten
Second-person
/wɨ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwɨ:jtʼ/
you would have eaten
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwɨ:jtʼ/
(s)he would have eaten
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwɨ:jɬ(ɜ)/
we would have eaten
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwɨ:jɬ(ɜ)/
you (all) would have eaten
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-n[ɜ]-ɜwɨ:jɬ(ɜ)/
they would have eaten
Conditional II
The verbs in the present tense are conjugated with -/ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/ in the singular and -/(n[ɜ]-)ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ(-n)/ in the plural. It conveys a sense of certainty and intention but also a kind of future-in-the-past if the situation had been reversed.
Examples:
/qʼɜ/ – to say → /ɐ-qʼ-ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/ (s)he was going to say
/fɨ/ – to eat → /ɐ-f-ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/ (s)he was going to eat
/tɕʼɜ/ – to know → /ɐ-tɕʼ-ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/ (s)he was going to know
/kʲʼɜ/ – to go → /ɐ-kʲʼ-ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/ (s)he was going to go
Plurality
Person
Ubykh
Meaning
Singular
First-person
/s(ɨ)-fɨ-ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/
I was going to eat
Second-person
/wɨ-fɨ-ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/
you were going to eat
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ/
(s)he was going to eat
Plural
First-person
/ʃ(ɨ)-fɨ-(n[ɜ]-)ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ(-n)/
we were going to eat
Second-person
/ɕʷ(ɨ)-fɨ-(n[ɜ]-)ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ(-n)/
you (all) were going to eat
Third-person
/ɐ-fɨ-(n[ɜ]-)ɜw:tʷ:qʼɜ(-n)/
they were going to eat
Static Verb Conjugation
In all dialects and speakers, only two static tenses exist: present and past.
Singular
Plural
Present
-/Ø/
-/n(ɜ)/
Past
-/jtʼ/
-/jɬ(ɜ)/
Aspect
There are five basic aspects that exist besides the aspects that exist within the Ubykh tense system. They are: habitual, iterative, exhaustive, excessive, and potential.
There are eleven distinct moods in Ubykh: indicative; direct, polite, and emphatic imperative; potential and frustrative optative; irrealis and realis conditional; binary and complex interrogative.[1]
Indicative
There is no marker for the indicative mood.
Imperative moods
There are two forms of the imperative: a formal, more polite imperative and a direct, curt imperative.
Direct
The direct imperative is usually the omission of the singular tense marker:
/wɨkʲʼɜ/
/wɨ-kʲʼɜ/
2sABS-go
/wɨkʲʼɜ/
/wɨ-kʲʼɜ/
2sABS-go
"Go!" (sg.)
Versus in the plural:
/ɕʷɨkʲʼɜn/
/ɕʷɨ-kʲʼɜ-n/
2pABS-go-PL
/ɕʷɨkʲʼɜn/
/ɕʷɨ-kʲʼɜ-n/
2pABS-go-PL
"Go!" (pl.)
Polite
This is formed by adding a -/ɨ/ suffix to the verb root. This, however, is sometimes omitted.
Emphatic
This is formed by adding -/mɜɕ/ to the end of an imperative verb.
Optative moods
There are two forms of optative present: potential and frustrative optative.
Potential
This is formed by adding a -/χ/ suffix to the verb root or /ɐχ/ after a final /ɨ/.
Frustrative
This is formed by adding a -/dɐχ/ or -/dɜχ/.
Conditional moods
There are realis and irrealis conditionals.
Realis
This is marked with -/dɜ(n)/.
Irrealis
This is marked with -/bɜ/.
Interrogative moods
Open questions are marked with -/ɕ/ and closed questions are marked with -/j/.
Copulas of Existence
Singular
Plural
Meaning
static
dynamic
static
dynamic
/sɨ/
/w(ɨ)s/
/ʒʷɜ/
/kʲʼɜʒʷɜ/
to be in a sitting position; to be (of smaller objects)
/tʷɨ/
/w(ɨ)tʷ/
/xɜ/
/wɨxɜ/ or /kʲʼɜxɜ/
to be in a standing position; to be (of larger objects)
/ʁɨ/
/wʁʷɜ/
/ʁʲɜ/
to be suspended, to be handing
/ɬɨ/
/wɨɬ/
/ɬɜ/
/kʲʼɜɬɜ/
to be lying
Converbs
Ubykh has a liberal usage of converbs to convey complex sentences.
Converb
Meaning
/ɡʲɨ/ ~ /j(ɨ)/
Momentary action with the primary verb.
/ɕɜ/
Ongoing or continuing action with the primary verb.
/msɜ/
Similar to /ɕɜ/ but implies that the verb is continuing or prolonged in nature.
/ɡʲɨmsɜ/ ~ /j(ɨ)msɜ/
Instrumental-like connotations such as 'by means of'.
/ʃɜ/
Exclusively used with /ʁʷɜ/ ('to want') to mark that the verb is what is wanted.
/n(ɨ)/ ~ /n(ɜʁʷɜdɜ(n)/
Similar to the absolutive marker and has a sense of "X and then Y". Verbs are usually not marked with a tense when this is used.
/mɜ/
Forms a conditional or slight imperative force. Usually accompanies with Future I and Future II tenses.
/tɐlɜ/
Always accompanies Future I. Extremely rare so its nuance isn't known.
/ɐdʷɜn/
Has a sense of goal and implies that the verb it marks is required but the task was unfulfilled and has been completed.
References
^ abcdeFenwick, R. S. H. (2011). A Grammar of Ubykh. Munich: Lincom Europa.
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