Sejong (Korean: 세종; Hanja: 世宗; 15 May 1397 – 30 March 1450), personal name Yi To (이도; 李祹), commonly known as Sejong the Great (세종대왕; 世宗大王), was the fourth monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He is regarded as one of the greatest rulers in Korean history, and is remembered as the inventor of Hangul, the native alphabet of the Korean language.
Initially titled Grand Prince Chungnyeong (충녕대군; 忠寧大君), he was the third son of King Taejong and Queen Wongyeong. In 1418, Sejong replaced his eldest brother, Yi Che, as crown prince; a few months later, Taejong voluntarily abdicated the throne in Sejong's favor. In the early years of Sejong's reign, King Emeritus Taejong retained vast powers, most notably absolute executive and military power, and continued to govern until his death in 1422.[1]
Sejong reinforced Korean Confucian and neo-Confucian policies, and enacted major legal amendments (공법; 貢法). He personally created and promulgated the Korean alphabet,[2][3] encouraged advancements in science and technology, and introduced measures to stimulate economic growth. He launched military campaigns to the north and implemented a relocation policy (사민정책; 徙民政策), establishing settlements in the newly conquered areas. He also ordered the military campaign against Tsushima island of 1419.[4][5]
From 1439, he became increasingly ill[6] and his eldest son, Crown Prince Yi Hyang, acted as regent. Sejong died on March 1450.
In 1408, Yi's father arranged his marriage to Lady Sim of the Cheongsong Sim clan [ko], who would later become Queen Soheon.[11][12] In 1412, Yi To was granted the title Grand Prince Chungnyeong (충녕대군; 忠寧大君).[8] In 1414, he had his first son, who would later become Munjong.[13]
Selection as heir to the throne
As Taejong's eldest son, Grand Prince Yangnyeong was to inherit the throne. However, Taejong, as well as court officials, increasingly deemed Yangnyeong unsuitable for the role due to his erratic and irresponsible behavior.[8][14] In a series of escalating events involving Yangnyeong's affair with Eori, a concubine of Kwak Sŏn, Yangnyeong was ultimately deposed as crown prince.
In mid-1418, court officials petitioned Taejong to consider a new candidate for the throne.[8][14] Following primogeniture, Taejong initially considered Yangnyeong's eldest son for the role. However, the officials objected and insisted that Taejong select a wise person as heir apparent. King Taejong asked the officials to propose an alternative. According to the Veritable Records, they gave an indirect response: "The father knows his sons best, as the king knows his subjects best."[c] Taejong judged his second son, Grand Prince Hyoryeong, to have a disposition too soft for the role.[14] He then proposed Chungnyeong, whom he felt was intelligent and sharp in matters of politics. The officials welcomed the decision and confirmed that Chungnyeong had been their preferred choice.[8][14] On 8 July 1418, Chungnyeong was made crown prince of Joseon.[11]
Reign
On 9 September 1418, Chungnyeong ascended the throne as King Sejong, following Taejong's abdication. However, Taejong retained military power and continued to make major political decisions as king emeritus (상왕; 上王) until his death.[15][8] Sejong did not challenge Taejong's authority and deferred to his father during this period.[15] Perpetually wary of royal authority falling into the thrall of the queen's clan, Taejong had Sejong's father-in-law, Shim On, executed on charges of treason. Other members of the queen's family were exiled or made commoners, which left Queen Soheon politically isolated and unable to protest.[16]
Despite inheriting significantly strengthened royal authority, Sejong did not suppress the press and promoted meritocracy through gwageo, the national civil service exam.[8]
Religion
During the Goryeo period, monks wielded strong political and economic influence. However, in Joseon, Buddhism was considered a false philosophy and the monks were viewed as corrupted by power and money.[citation needed]
Likewise, Sejong continued Joseon's policies of "worshiping Confucianism and suppressing Buddhism" (Korean: 승유억불; Hanja: 崇儒抑佛).[17] He banned monks from entering Hanseong and reduced the seven schools of Buddhism down to two, Seon and Gyo, drastically decreasing the power and wealth of the religious leaders.[18] One of the key factors in this suppression was Sejong's reform of the land system. This policy resulted in temple lands being seized and redistributed for development and monks losing large amounts of economic influence.[19][20] Furthermore, he performed government ceremonies according to Confucianism and encouraged people to behave according to the teachings of Confucius.[21]
At the same time, Sejong sought to alleviate religious tensions between Confucianism and Buddhism.[22] The Seokbosangjeol (석보상절; 釋譜詳節), a 24-volume Korean-language biography of Buddha translated from Chinese Buddhist texts, was commissioned[by whom?] and published in Sejong's reign by Grand Prince Suyang, in mourning for Queen Soheon, a devout Buddhist. Sejong advocated the project—despite fierce opposition from his courtiers—and condemned the hypocrisy of those who privately worship the Buddha yet publicly rebuke others for doing so.[23]
The King spoke to the Seungjeongwon, Mencius once said, 'Mozi regards austerity as a virtue and yet made a lavish burial for his parents.' Generally speaking, a subject's duty is to serve his superior with honesty and not to tolerate deceit. However, people all around the world worship the Buddha, serve spirits at their houses, and yet reproach others for worshiping the very ghosts and Buddha they themselves revere; I find this highly reprehensible.
In 1427, Sejong issued a decree against the Huihui (Korean Muslim) community that had enjoyed special status and stipends since the Yuan dynasty's rule over Goryeo. The Huihui were forced to abandon their headgear, close down their ceremonial hall – a mosque in Gaegyeong, present-day Kaesong – and worship like everyone else. No further records of Muslims exist during the Joseon era.[25]
Economy
In the early years of the Joseon dynasty, the economy operated on a barter system, with cloth, grain, and cotton being the most common forms of currency. In 1423, under King Sejong's administration, the government attempted to introduce a national currency modeled after the Tang dynasty's kaiyuan tongbao (開元通寶). The resulting Joseon tongbo (조선통보; 朝鮮通寶) was a bronze coin, backed by a silver standard, with 150 coins being equal to 600 grams of silver. However, production ceased in 1425 due to high manufacturing costs, as the exchange rate dropped below the coin's intrinsic value.[26]
In 1445, Sejong consolidated the various sujoji[d] records, previously managed by various government offices, and placed them under the administration of the Ministry of Taxation (Hojo) to improve transparency in Joseon's fiscal policies.[27]
Military
King Sejong was an effective military planner and created various military regulations to strengthen the safety of his kingdom.[28][place missing] During his reign great technological advancements were made in the manufacture of gunpowder and firearms. Hand cannons, known as Wangu (완구; 碗口), first built in 1407 and 1418, were improved upon,[29] and the Sohwapo (소화포; 小火砲), Cheoljetanhwan (철제탄환), Hwapojeon (화포전; 火砲箭) and the Hwacho (화초; 火硝) were invented during his reign.[30]
None of these had yet reached a satisfactory level for Sejong. In the 26th year of his reign, he had the cannon foundry Hwapojujoso (화포주조소; 火砲鑄造所) built to produce a new standard cannon with outstanding performance, and in the following year, he undertook a complete overhaul of the cannon. The Chongtongdeungnok (총통등록; 銃筒謄錄) compiled and published in the 30th year his reign, was an illustrated book that described the casting methods, gunpowder usage, and specifications of the guns. The publication of this book is considered a remarkable achievement that marked a new era in the manufacture of artillery during the Joseon Dynasty.[30]
In June 1419, under his father's counsel, Sejong ordered the third and last military campaign of Tsushima. This incident is known as the Gihae Expedition in Korean and Ōei Invasion in Japanese. The military expedition was aimed at eradicating the taproot of the Japanese pirates' pillaging the southern villages of the Joseon dynasty. During the invasion, 245 Japanese were executed or killed and another 110 were captured, while 180 Korean soldiers died. Around 150 who had been kidnapped (146 Chinese and 8 Koreans) were also freed.[31] A truce was made in July 1419, and the Joseon army returned to the Korean Peninsula, but no official documents were signed until 1443. In this agreement, known as the Treaty of Gyehae, the daimyo of Tsushima was obliged to pay tribute to the Joseon monarch, and in return, the Sō clan was allowed to serve as a diplomatic intermediary between Korea and Japan, as well as retain exclusive trade rights.[e][32]
In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Chongsŏ to the north to conquer the Jurchens. The military campaign captured several fortresses and expanded the Korean territory northward up to the Songhua River.[33][28][place missing]
Sejong promoted science.[34][35] In 1420, Sejong created a royal academy within Gyeongbok Palace known as the Hall of Worthies. The institute was responsible for conducting scientific research with the purpose of advancing the country's technology. The Hall of Worthies was designed to host Joseon's best and brightest thinkers, with the government offering grants and scholarships to encourage young scholars to attend.[36][37]
In 1428, Sejong ordered the printing of one thousand copies of a farmer's handbook.[f] The following year, he published the Nongsa Jikseol (농사직설; 農事直說; lit. 'Straight Talk on Farming'), a compilation of various farming methods accommodative to Korea's climate and soil conditions.[39] The book dealt with planting, harvesting, and soil treatment, and contained information about the different farming techniques that scientists gathered from different regions of Korea. These techniques were essential for maintaining the newly adopted intensive and continuous cultivation methods.[40]
One of Sejong's close associates was the inventor Jang Yeong-sil. Jang, who was originally a government-owned nobi from Dongnae, appointed as court technician by Sejong in 1423.[41] Jang had been released from nobi by Taejong. Sejong appointed Jang to a byeoljwa (별좌; 別坐), responsible for crafting and repairing royal items.[42]
In 1442, Jang Yeong-sil made one of the world's first standardized rain gauges named cheugugi (측우기; 測雨器).[43] This model has not survived, with the oldest existing Korean rain gauge being made in 1770, during the reign of King Yeongjo. According to the Daily Records of the Royal Secretariat (승정원일기; 承政院日記; Seungjeongwon Ilgi), Yeongjo wanted to revive the glorious times of Sejong the Great, and started reading chronicles from that era. When he came across the mention of a rain gauge, Yeongjo ordered a reproduction. Since there is a mark of the Qing dynasty ruler Qianlong (r. 1735–96), dated 1770,[44] this Korean-designed rain gauge is sometimes misunderstood as having been imported from China.
In 1434, Jang Yeong-sil, tasked by King Sejong, invented the gabinja (갑인자; 甲寅字), a new type of printing press. This printing press was said to be twice as fast as the previous model and was composed of copper-zinc and lead-tin alloys.
Korean armillary sphere first made by the scientist Jang Yeong-sil during the reign of King Sejong
Sejong also wanted to reform the Korean calendar system, which was at the time based upon the longitude of the Chinese capital. He had his astronomers create a calendar with the Joseon capital of Hanseong as the primary meridian. This new system allowed Joseon astronomers to accurately predict the timing of solar and lunar eclipses.[40]
In the realm of traditional Korean medicine, two important treatises were written during his reign. These were the Hyangyak Jipseongbang (향약집성방; 鄕藥集成方) and the Euibang Yuchwi (의방유취; 醫方類聚), which historian Kim Yong-sik says represents "the Koreans' efforts to develop their own system of medical knowledge, distinct from that of China".[40]
Public welfare
In 1426, Sejong enacted a law that granted government serfs (노비; 奴婢; nobi) women 100 days of maternity leave after childbirth, which, in 1430, was lengthened by one month before childbirth. In 1434, he also granted the husbands 30 days of paternity leave.[45]
In order to provide equality and fairness in taxation for the common people, Sejong issued a royal decree to administer a nationwide public opinion poll regarding a new tax system called Gongbeop in 1430. Over the course of five months, the poll surveyed 172,806 people, of which approximately 57% responded with approval for the proposed reform.[46][47]
Joseon's economy depended on the agricultural output of the farmers, so Sejong allowed them to pay more or less tax according to the fluctuations of economic prosperity and hard times.[48] Because of this, farmers could worry less about tax quotas and instead work at maintaining and selling their crops.
It is said that once, when the palace had a significant surplus of food, the king distributed it to poor peasants who needed it.[citation needed] Otherwise the state maintained a permanent grain dole, that existed since the days of Unified Silla.[49]
Literature
Sejong composed the famous Yongbieocheonga ("Songs of Flying Dragons"; 1445), Seokbo Sangjeol ("Episodes from the Life of Buddha"; July 1447), Worin Cheongang Jigok ("Songs of the Moon Shining on a Thousand Rivers"; July 1447), and Dongguk Jeongun ("Dictionary of Proper Sino-Korean Pronunciation"; September 1447).
Arts
One of Sejong's closest friends and mentors was the 15th century musician Bak Yeon. Together they composed over two hundred musical arrangements. Sejong's independent musical compositions include the Chongdaeop ('Great Achievements'), Potaepyeong ('Preservation of Peace'), Pongnaeui ('Phoenix'), and Yominrak ('A Joy to Share with the People'). Yominrak continues to be a standard piece played by modern traditional Korean orchestras, while Chongdaeop and Potaepyeong are played during the Jongmyo Jerye (memorials honoring the kings of Joseon).
In 1418, during Sejong's reign, scholars developed the Pyeongyeong (편경; 編磬), a lithophone modeled on the Chinese bianqing. The Pyeongyeong is a percussion instrument consisting of two rows of 8 pumice slabs hung on a decorative wooden frame with a 16-tone range and struck with an ox horn mallet. It was manufactured using pumice mined from the Gyeonggi Province and was primarily used for ceremonies.[50]
Sejong's contribution to the arts continued long after his death; he had always wanted to use Korean music rather than Chinese music for ancestral rituals, but conservative court officials stopped his efforts. However, when Sejong's son, King Sejo, rose to the throne, he modified the ritual music composed by his father and created the 'Jongmyo court music', which was used for royal ancestral rituals and is now inscribed as an UNESCO Intangible Cultural Hertiage.[51]
Before the creation of the new alphabet, the people of Joseon primarily used Classical Chinese to write, alongside a few writing systems like idu, hyangchal, gugyeol, and gakpil – which used Chinese characters to approximate sounds of the Korean language – that had been in use since hundreds of years before hangul.[54][55][56][57] However, due to the fundamental differences between the Korean and Chinese languages,[58] and the large number of Chinese characters required, lower-class people of Joseon lacked the privilege of education and were illiterate. To promote literacy, King Sejong created hangul (which initially had 28 letters, four of which are no longer in use).[59]
Hangul was completed in 1443 and published in 1446 along with a 33-page manual titled Hunminjeongeum, explaining what the letters are as well as the philosophical theories and motives behind them.[60]
King Sejong faced backlash from the noble class as many disapproved of the idea of a common writing system, with some openly opposing its creation. Many within the nobility believed that giving the peasants the ability to read and write would allow them to find and abuse loopholes within the law. Others felt that hangul would threaten their families' positions in court by creating a larger pool of civil servants. The Joseon elite continued to use the Chinese hanja long after Sejong's death.[61] Hangul was often treated with contempt by those in power and received criticism in the form of nicknames, including eonmun ("vulgar script"), amkeul ("women's script"), and ahaekkeul ("children's script"). It was commonly used for areas like casual writing, prose and bookkeeping, especially by the urban middle class like administrators and bureaucrats.[62] It notably gained popularity among women and fiction writers, with former usually often not having been able to get access to hanja education.
In 1504, the study and publication of hangul was banned by Yeonsangun.[63] Its spread and preservation can be largely attributed to three main factors: books published for women, its use by Buddhist monks,[64] and the introduction of Christianity in Korea in 1602.[65] Hangul was brought into the mainstream culture in the 16th century, due to a renaissance in literature and poetry. It continued to gain popularity well into the 17th century, and gained wider use after a period of nationalism in the 19th century. In 1849, it was adopted as Korea's national writing system, and saw its first use in official government documents. After the Treaty of 1910, hangul was outlawed again until the liberation of Korea in 1945.[66][67]
Health issues and death
The tomb of Sejong the Great
Sejong suffered from eye diseases and deteriorating vision and likely had health issues linked to excessive meat consumption all throughout his life.[68] Sejong's love for meat is clear from a comment by King Emeritus Taejong. When Sejong stopped eating fish and meat to mourn after the death of Jeongjong – Sejong's uncle and Taejong's older brother – Taejong remarked that Sejong had always found it hard to eat without meat since he was a child.[69] Sejong also started having musculoskeletal pain at the age of 22. One day he was supposed to organize a farewell party for the emissaries to the Ming dynasty but was in too much pain to do so. Sejong said: "My waist and back are stiff and immobile, so it is hard to bend or straighten."[70] There is speculation that he had diabetes, but there is inadequate evidence for a modern medical diagnosis. There is also an account of Sejong's having a disease that roughly translates to palsy (풍증; 風症) and essential tremor (수전증; 手顫症), but terminology of the 15th century Korean traditional medicine does not translate well.[71]
Sejong died on 8 April 1450, on the Gregorian calendar, at the residence of Grand Prince Young-eung at the age of 52.[72] He was buried at Yeongneung (영릉; 英陵) in the same mound as his wife, Queen Soheon, who had died four years earlier. His tomb is located in Yeoju, South Korea.
His successor was his first son, Yi Hyang (posthumously King Munjong). Sejong was concerned that sickly Munjong would die early and leave his vulnerable young son to reign, so he asked scholars from the Hall of Worthies to look after his young grandson, Danjong.[73] As predicted, Munjong died two years after his ascension, and the political stability enjoyed in the past decades disintegrated when Danjong became the sixth king of Joseon at the age of 12.[74] Eventually, Sejong's second son, Grand Prince Suyang (later known as King Sejo), usurped the throne in 1455. When six court officials were implicated in a plot to restore his nephew, Sejo abolished the Hall of Worthies and executed Danjong along with several ministers who served during Sejong's reign.[75]
Reception and legacy
King Sejong the Great, as depicted on the Bank of Korea's 10,000 won banknote (Series VI).
Sejong the Great is considered one of the most influential monarchs in Korean history, with the creation of Hangul considered his greatest legacy.[8][61][21] Sejong is widely renowned in modern-day South Korea.[76] In a 2024 survey by Gallup Korea, Sejong was nominated as the second most respected figure by South Koreans, only to be surpassed by Yi Sun-sin.[77] The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture evaluates the reign of Sejong "the most shining period of the history of our [the Korean] people."[8] Sejong's creation of the Korean alphabet is celebrated every 9 October as Hangul Day, a national holiday.[78]
In North Korea, Sejong is not as widely commemorated as in the South.[76] Volume 16 of the Great Korean Encyclopedia asserts that feudalist pressure and extortion was strengthened during Sejong's reign and that all of Sejong's policies were directed for the benefit of the feudalist ruling class. In contrast, on 15 December 2001, North Korean news outlet Tongil Sinbo stated in a column that Sejong the Great greatly contributed to Korean science during his 30-year reign.[87]Hangul Day is also celebrated in North Korea, albeit on a different date than in South Korea.[76]
7. Lady Song of the Yeosan Song clan, Grand Princess Consort of Samhan State (삼한국대부인 여산 송씨)
Consort(s) and their respective issue
Sejong and his primary consort Soheon had ten children together: the most for any queen consort of the Joseon period.[88] Historian Lee Han argues it is unclear if their relationship had genuine love[importance?]; while they had numerous children together, and there is evidence of the two caring for and treating each other respectfully, Taejong had the queen's father executed, and Sejong dutifully consented to this.[89][unbalanced opinion?]
Queen Soheon of the Cheongsong Shim clan (소헌왕후 심씨; 28 September 1395 – 24 March 1446)
Princess Jeongso (정소공주; 1412 – 25 February 1424), first daughter
^At the time, the residence was also called the Eastern Detached Palace (동별궁; 東別宮; Dongbyeolgung); today, it is known as the Andong Detached Palace (안동별궁; 安洞別宮; Andongbyeolgung).
^The exact location of Junsubang is unknown. Old maps suggest it was outside the west gate of Gyeongbokgung.[7]
^Baker, Don (6 December 2006). "Islam Struggles for a Toehold in Korea". Harvard Asia Quarterly. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 28 September 2023.
^ abPark, Young-gyu (12 February 2008). 한권으로 읽는 세종대왕실록 [Veritable Records of King Sejong the Great in One Volume] (in Korean). Woongjin Knowledge House. ISBN9788901077543.
^Oh, Gi-su (2011). 세종대왕의 조세사상과 공법 연구 : 조세법 측면에서 [The Study of Gongbeop of King Sejong the Great and Thoughts on Taxation: From the Perspective of Tax Law]. Korean Journal of Taxation Research (in Korean). 28 (1): 369–405. ISSN1225-1399 – via National Assembly Library.
^한국 전통과학의 전성기, 세종 시대 [The heyday of Korean traditional science, the Sejong era]. science.ytn.co.kr (in Korean). 31 January 2018. Retrieved 2 April 2018.
^"Invest Korea Journal". Invest Korea Journal. 23. Korea Trade-Investment Promotion Agency. 1 January 2005. They later devised three different systems for writing Korean with Chinese characters: Hyangchal, Gukyeol and Idu. These systems were similar to those developed later in Japan and were probably used as models by the Japanese.
^유성호 (2 July 2007). 최고의 '방패' 한국형 이지스함 세종대왕함 진수. CNB뉴스 (in Korean). Retrieved 4 July 2024. 해군은 또 "세종대왕은 국민적 호감도가 가장 높은 인물"이라며 "향후 항모를 보유하게 된다면 이미 대형 상륙함에 독도함 등이 함명으로 사용되는 만큼, '고구려', '발해' 같은 웅대한 대륙국가의 이름이 사용될 수도 있을 것"이라고 설명했다.
^최선영 (7 January 2002). "北, 세종대왕 역사적 인물로 평가". Tongil News (in Korean). 북한 무소속대변지 통일신보 최근호(2001.12.15)는 [우리나라 역사인물] 코너에서 `과학문화 발전에 기여한 세종`이란 제목을 통해 세종대왕(1397∼1450년)이 `30여년 집권기간 훈민정음의 창제 등 나라의 과학문화를 발전시키는데 적지 않게 기여한 것으로 하여 후세에도 그 이름은 전해지고 있다`고 소개했다... 또 2000년 8월 발행된 [조선대백과사전] 제16권은 `세종 통치시기 봉건문화가 발전하고 나라의 대외적 지위가 높아졌다`고 지적하면서도 `봉건군주로서 세종의 모든 활동과 그 결과는 봉건 지배계급의 이익을 옹호하기 위한 것이었고 이 시기 인민대중에 대한 봉건적 압박과 착취는 보다 강화됐다`고 주장하고 있다.
Office of Annals (Taejong) [실록청; 實錄廳] (1431) [1418]. 세자 이제를 폐하고 충녕 대군으로서 왕세자를 삼다 [Yangnyeong Is Deposed And Chungnyeong Becomes Heir Apparent]. 조선왕조실록: 태종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Taejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Office of Annals (Sejong) [실록청; 實錄廳] (1454) [1418]. 총서 [General Preface]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1419]. 이원이 막 돌아온 수군을 돌려 다시 대마도 치는 것이 득책이 아님을 고하다 [Yi Won advises that it is not advantageous to send the recently returned navy back to attack Tsushima again]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon 과천: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1419]. 박실이 대마도에서 패군할 때의 상황을 알고 있는 중국인을 보내는 데 대한 의논 [Discussion on sending a Chinese person who knows the situation when Park Sil's army was defeated at Tsushima]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon 과천: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1420]. 죄인에게 아부한 이발 등을 파직할 것을 상왕에게 여쭈다 [Sejong Asks King Emeritus Whether To Impeach Yi Bal et al. For Currying Favor With Criminal]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1435]. 진양 대군 이유에게 대신 전별연을 행하게 하다 [King Has Yi Yu Organize Farewell Party]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1439]. 강무를 세자에게 위임하도록 하는 논의를 하다 [Discussing the delegation of the royal hunt to the Crown Prince]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1441]. 임금이 안질로 인해 공사업무 축소를 승정원에 전지하다 [King Instructs Royal Secretariat To Reduce Work Due To Eye Disease]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1446]. 통사 정복에게 화자 친상의 자문을 주어 요동에 보내다 [King Seeks Consult From Liaodong]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1446]. 중궁을 위해 불경을 만드는 것을 허락하려 한다고 승정원에 이르니 반대하다 [The King asks permission from the Royal Secretariat to publish Buddhist texts for the queen but is rejected.]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong]. Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1450]. 임금과 동궁이 몸이 불편하여 조서를 맞이하는 방법에 대해 대신들과 의논하다 [Sejong And Officials Discuss Welcoming Emissary From Ming China As Sejong and Crown Prince Are Both Sick]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1450]. 임금이 영응 대군 집 동별궁에서 훙하다 [King Dies at Young-eung's Residence]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
——— (1454) [1450]. 지중추원사 이선 등을 북경에 보내 부고를 고하고 시호를 청하다 [Yi Seon et al. Go To Beijing And Request Temple Name]. 조선왕조실록: 세종실록; 世宗莊憲大王實錄 [Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty: Annals of King Sejong] (in Korean). Gwacheon [과천]: National Institute of Korean History.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Cho Nam-uk [조남욱] (2011). 세종대왕의 유불화해의식에 관한 연구 [A Study on King Sejong's Amicable Consciousness of Confucianism and Buddhism]. Journal of Ethics [윤리연구; 倫理硏究] (in Korean). 1 (80): 1–30. doi:10.15801/je.1.80.201103.1 – via KCI.
Hong Yi-Seop [홍이섭] (2011) [1971]. 세종대왕 [Sejong the Great] (in Korean) (9th ed.). Seoul [서울]: Sejong the Great Memorial Society [세종대왕기념사업회]. ISBN978-89-8275-660-3.
Yi Han [이한] (2007). 나는 조선이다 [I Am Joseon] (in Korean). Seoul [서울]: Cheong-A Publishing Company [청아출판사]. ISBN978-89-368-2112-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
English-language sources
Coulmas, Florian (2000). "The Korean Alphabet: Its History and Structure (review)". Korean Studies. 24 (1): 198–201. doi:10.1353/ks.2000.0002. ISSN1529-1529.
Chin W., Kim, ed. (2000). "The Legacy of King Sejong the Great". Literacy and Writing Systems in Asia(PDF). Studies in Linguistic Sciences. Vol. 30. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. ISSN0049-2388.
Kim-Renaud, Young-Key (1997). King Sejong the Great: The Light of Fifteenth Century Korea. Washington, D.C.: International Circle of Korean Linguistics. ISBN1-882177-01-0.
——— (2000). "Sejong's theory of literacy and writing". Studies in the Linguistic Sciences. 30 (1): 13–46.
Paek, Okkyoung; Cho, Jihyung; Ham, Dongju; Jung, Byungjoon; Lee, Hyunsook; Sohn, Jungsook (2011). Understanding Korean History. Seoul: Korean Cultural Research Institute of Ewha Woman's University: Jimoondang. ISBN978-89-6297-024-1.
Rutt, Richard (1982). James Scarth Gale and his History of the Korean People. Seoul Computer Press.
Song, Ho-jung; Jeon, Deog-jae; Lim, Ki-hwan; Kim, In-ho; Lee, Kang-hahn; Choi, E-don; Chung, Yeon-sik; Suh, Young-hee; Chun, Woo-yong; Hahn, Monica; Chung, Chang-hyun (2019). A History of Korea. Understanding Korea. Vol. 10. Translated by Kane, Daniel; An, Jong-Chol; Seide, Keith. Republic of Korea: Academy of Korean Studies. ISBN979-11-5866-604-0.
# denotes that the king was deposed and never received a temple name.
^Those who were listed were not reigning monarchs but posthumously recognized; the year following means the year of recognition.
^Only the crown princes that did not become the king were listed; the former year indicates when one officially became the heir and the latter one is that when one died/deposed. Those who ascended to the throne were excluded in the list for simplification.
^The title given to the biological father, who never reigned, of the kings who were adopted as the heir to a precedent king.
^The de jure monarch of Korea during the era was the Emperor of Japan, while the former Korean emperors were given nobility title "King Yi" instead.
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