A satellite is a subviral agent that depends on the coinfection of a host cell with a helper virus for its replication. Satellites can be divided into two major classes: satellite viruses and satellite nucleic acids.[1] Satellite viruses, which are most commonly associated with plants, are also found in mammals, arthropods, and bacteria. They encode structural proteins to enclose their genetic material, which are therefore distinct from the structural proteins of their helper viruses.[1] Satellite nucleic acids, in contrast, do not encode their own structural proteins, but instead are encapsulated by proteins encoded by their helper viruses.[1][2] The genomes of satellites range upward from 359 nucleotides in length for satellite tobacco ringspot virus RNA (STobRV).[3]
Most viruses have the capability to use host enzymes or their own replication machinery to independently replicate their own viral RNA. Satellites, in contrast, are completely dependent on a helper virus for replication. The symbiotic relationship between a satellite and a helper virus to catalyze the replication of a satellite genome is also dependent on the host to provide components like replicases[4] to carry out replication.[5]
A satellite virus of mamavirus that inhibits the replication of its host has been termed a virophage.[6] However, the usage of this term remains controversial due to the lack of fundamental differences between virophages and classical satellite viruses.[7]
History and discovery
The tobacco necrosis virus was the virus that led to the discovery of the first satellite virus in 1962. Scientists discovered that the first satellite had the components to make its own protein shell. A few years later in 1969, scientists discovered another symbiotic relationship with the tobacco ringspot nepovirus (TobRV) and another satellite virus.[8] The emergence of satellite RNA is said to have come from either the genome of the host or its co-infecting agents, and any vectors leading to transmission.[9]
A satellite virus important to human health that demonstrates the need for co-infection to replicate and infect within a host is the virus that causes hepatitis D. Hepatitis D or delta virus (HDV) was discovered in 1977 by Mario Rizzetto[10] and is differentiated from hepatitis A, B, and C because it requires viral particles from hepatitis B virus (HBV) to replicate and infect liver cells. HBV provides a surface antigen, HBsAg, which is utilized by HDV to create a super-infection resulting in liver failure.[11] HDV is found all over the globe but is most prevalent in Africa, the Middle East and southern Italy.[11]
Satellite compared to a virus
Satellite compared to a virus
Satellite
Virus
Replication
Depend on the presence of host cells and helper viruses to replicate their genomes
Depend on the presence of host cells to replicate their genomes
Nucleic acid
Contain DNA or RNA
Contain DNA or RNA, or both at different points in life cycle
Genome size
0.22 to 1.5 kb
10 kb to 1.5 Mb
Structure
Satellite viruses encode their own protein capsids with the aid of helper viruses
Satellite nucleic acids do not have capsids, but rely on helper viruses to enclose their genomes
Package their genome within a capsid (protein shell)
Can infect all types of organism; animals, plants, fungi, bacteria, archaea
Classification
The classification of subviral agents is ongoing. The following uses an outline for subviral agents in a 2011 ICTV report.[1] A lot of the taxa have since been assigned more formal names in 2019, so these are included when possible.
Satellite viruses
Some satellite viruses have been assigned a taxon. The following reflects the results of a 2015 proposal that has since been accepted (Taxoprop 2015.009a).[12]
The following may not be comprehensive in its ICTV coverage. The nomenclature for satellite RNAs is to prefix the host virus name with "sat".
Satellite-like nucleic acids resemble satellite nucleic acids, in that they replicate with the aid of helper viruses. However they differ in that they can encode functions that can contribute to the success of their helper viruses; while they are sometimes considered to be genomic elements of their helper viruses, they are not always found within their helper viruses.
^Wayne L. Gerlach; Jamal M. Buzayan; Irving R. Schneider; George Bruening (1986). "Satellite Tobacco Ringspot Virus RNA: Biological Activity of DNA Clones and Their in Vitro Transcripts". Virology. 151 (2): 172–185. doi:10.1016/0042-6822(86)90040-1. PMID18640636.
