Personal construct theory

Within personality psychology, personal construct theory (PCT) or personal construct psychology (PCP) is a theory of personality and cognition developed by the American psychologist George Kelly in the 1950s.^[1] The theory addresses the psychological reasons for actions.^[2] Kelly proposed that individuals can be psychologically evaluated according to similarity–dissimilarity poles, which he called personal constructs (schemas, or ways of seeing the world).^[1] The theory is considered by some psychologists as forerunner to theories of cognitive therapy.^[3]

From the theory, Kelly derived a psychotherapy approach, as well as a technique called the repertory grid interview, that helped his patients to analyze their own personal constructs with minimal intervention or interpretation by the therapist.^[4] The repertory grid was later adapted for various uses within organizations, including decision-making and interpretation of other people's world-views.^[5] The UK Council for Psychotherapy, a regulatory body, classifies PCP therapy within the experiential subset of the constructivist school.

Principles

A main tenet of PCP theory is that a person's unique psychological processes are channeled by the way they anticipate events. Kelly believed that anticipation and prediction are the main drivers of our mind. "Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist", said Kelly: people are constantly building up and refining theories and models about how the world works so that they can anticipate future events. People start doing this at birth (for example, a child discovers that if they start to cry, their mother will come to them) and continue refining their theories as they grow up.

Kelly proposed that every construct is bipolar, specifying how two things are similar to each other (lying on the same pole) and different from a third thing, and they can be expanded with new ideas. (More recent researchers have suggested that constructs need not be bipolar.^[6]) People build theories—often stereotypes—about other people and also try to control them or impose on others their own theories so as to be better able to predict others' actions. All these theories are built up from a system of constructs. A construct has two extreme points, such as "happy–sad," and people tend to place items at either extreme or at some point in between. People's minds, said Kelly, are filled up with these constructs at a low level of awareness.

A given person, set of persons, any event, or circumstance can be characterized fairly precisely by the set of constructs applied to it and by the position of the thing within the range of each construct. For example, Fred may feel as though he is not happy or sad (an example of a construct); he feels as though he is between the two. However, he feels he is more clever than he is stupid (another example of a construct).  A baby may have a preverbal construct of what behaviors may cause their mother to come to them. Constructs can be applied to anything people put their attention to, and constructs also strongly influence what people fix their attention on. People can construe reality by constructing different constructs. Hence, determining a person's system of constructs would go a long way towards understanding them, especially the person's essential constructs that represent their very strong and unchangeable beliefs and their self-construal.

Kelly did not use the concept of the unconscious; instead, he proposed the notion of "levels of awareness" to explain why people did what they did.^[7] He identified "construing" as the highest level and "preverbal" as the lowest level of awareness.^[7]

Some psychologists have suggested that PCT is not a psychological theory but a metatheory because it is a theory about theories.^[8]

Therapy approach

Kelly believed in a non-invasive or non-directive approach to psychotherapy. Rather than having the therapist interpret the person's psyche, which would amount to imposing the doctor's constructs on the patient, the therapist should just act as a facilitator of the patient finding his or her own constructs. The patient's behavior is then mainly explained as ways to selectively observe the world, act upon it and update the construct system in such a way as to increase predictability. To help the patient find his or her constructs, Kelly developed the repertory grid interview technique.

Kelly explicitly stated that each individual's task in understanding their personal psychology is to put in order the facts of his or her own experience. Then the individual, like the scientist, is to test the accuracy of that constructed knowledge by performing those actions the constructs suggest. If the results of their actions are in line with what the knowledge predicted, then they have done a good job of finding the order in their personal experience. If not, then they can modify the construct: their interpretations or their predictions or both. This method of discovering and correcting constructs is roughly analogous to the general scientific method that is applied in various ways by modern sciences to discover truths about the universe.

The repertory grid

Main article: Repertory grid

The repertory grid serves as part of various assessment methods to elicit and examine an individual's repertoire of personal constructs. There are different formats such as card sorts, verbally administered group format, and the repertory grid technique.^[9]

The repertory grid itself is a matrix where the rows represent constructs found, the columns represent the elements, and cells indicate with a number the position of each element within each construct. There is software available to produce several reports and graphs from these grids.

To build a repertory grid for a patient, Kelly might first ask the patient to select about seven elements (although there are no fixed rules for the number of elements^[10]) whose nature might depend on whatever the patient or therapist are trying to discover.^[10] For instance, "Two specific friends, two work-mates, two people you dislike, your mother and yourself", or something of that sort. Then, three of the elements would be selected at random, and then the therapist would ask: "In relation to ... (whatever is of interest), in which way are two of these people alike but different from the third?" The answer is sure to indicate one of the extreme points of one of the patient's constructs. He might say for instance that Fred and Sarah are very communicative whereas John isn't. Further questioning would reveal the other end of the construct (say, introvert) and the positions of the three characters between extremes. Repeating the procedure with different sets of three elements ends up revealing several constructs the patient might not have been fully aware of.

In the book Personal Construct Methodology, researchers Brian R. Gaines and Mildred L.G. Shaw noted that they "have also found concept mapping and semantic network tools to be complementary to repertory grid tools and generally use both in most studies" but that they "see less use of network representations in PCP studies than is appropriate".^[11] They encouraged practitioners to use semantic network techniques in addition to the repertory grid.^[12]

Organizational applications

PCP has always been a minority interest among psychologists. During the last 30 years, it has gradually gained adherents in the US, Canada, the UK, Germany, Australia, Ireland, Italy and Spain. While its chief fields of application remain clinical and educational psychology, there is an increasing interest in its applications to organizational development, employee training and development, job analysis, job description and evaluation. The repertory grid is often used in the qualitative phase of market research, to identify the ways in which consumers construe products and services.

See also

• Cognitive analytic therapy
• Decisional balance sheet § ABC model
• Idios kosmos
• Post-rationalist cognitive therapy
• Schema therapy

Notes

1. For example: Kelly 1991 (first published 1955); Kelly & Maher 1969; Bannister 1970; Bannister & Fransella 1986 (first published 1971)
2. Horley, "Issues in forensic psychotherapy", in Winter & Viney 2005, p. 227
3. Millon 2004, p. 395.
4. For example: Fransella, Bell & Bannister 2004 (first published 1977); Jankowicz 2004; Caputi et al. 2011
5. For example: Stewart, Stewart & Fonda 1981; Gaines & Shaw 1993; Bradshaw et al. 1993; Simpson, Large & O'Brien 2004; Carrillat et al. 2009
6. For example: Riemann 1990; Yorke 2001
7. Fransella 2005, p. 11.
8. Fransella 2003, p. 8.
9. Horley 2008, pp. 58–65.
10. Fransella, Bell & Bannister 2004, p. 27.
11. Gaines & Shaw, "Computer-aided constructivism", in Caputi et al. 2011, pp. 183–222
12. On constructivist multimethodology see also, for example: Bradshaw et al. 1993

References

• Caputi, Peter; Viney, Linda L.; Walker, Beverly M.; Crittenden, Nadia, eds. (2011). Personal construct methodology. Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781119953616. ISBN 9780470770870. OCLC 730906380.
• Carrillat, François A.; Riggle, Robert J.; Locander, William B.; Gebhardt, Gary F.; Lee, James M. (2009). "Cognitive segmentation: modeling the structure and content of customers' thoughts". Psychology and Marketing. 26 (6): 479–506. doi:10.1002/mar.20284.
• Horley, James (2008). Sexual offenders: personal construct theory and deviant sexual behaviour. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9780203929810. ISBN 9781583917350. OCLC 176648827.
• Fransella, Fay, ed. (2005). The essential practitioner's handbook of personal construct psychology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470013236. OCLC 694910981. This is a concise (abridged) paperback version of Fransella (2003).
• Winter, David A.; Viney, Linda L., eds. (2005). Personal construct psychotherapy: advances in theory, practice, and research. London; Philadelphia: Whurr Publishers. doi:10.1002/9780470713686. ISBN 9781861563941. OCLC 57485437.
• Simpson, Barbara; Large, Bob; O'Brien, Matthew (January 2004). "Bridging difference through dialogue: a constructivist perspective". Journal of Constructivist Psychology. 17 (1): 45–59. doi:10.1080/10720530490250697. S2CID 145716959.
• Jankowicz, Devi (2004). The easy guide to repertory grids. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470854044. OCLC 51984819.
• Millon, Theodore (2004). Masters of the mind: exploring the story of mental illness from ancient times to the new millennium. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780471469858. OCLC 54460256.
• Fransella, Fay, ed. (2003). International handbook of personal construct psychology. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/0470013370. ISBN 978-0470847275. OCLC 51178396.
• Neimeyer, Greg J.; Neimeyer, Robert A., eds. (2002). Advances in personal construct psychology: new directions and perspectives. Wesport, CT: Praeger Publishing. ISBN 978-0275972943. OCLC 50434439.
• Yorke, Mantz (April 2001). "Bipolarity... or not?: some conceptual problems relating to bipolar rating scales". British Educational Research Journal. 27 (2): 171–186. doi:10.1080/01411920120037126. JSTOR 1501708.
• Bradshaw, Jeffrey M.; Ford, Kenneth M.; Adams-Webber, Jack R.; Boose, John H. (1993). "Beyond the repertory grid: new approaches to constructivist knowledge acquisition tool development". In Ford, Kenneth M.; Bradshaw, Jeffrey M. (eds.). Knowledge acquisition as modeling. New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 287–333. ISBN 978-0471593683. OCLC 26851198.
• Gaines, Brian R.; Shaw, Mildred L. G. (March 1993). "Knowledge acquisition tools based on personal construct psychology". The Knowledge Engineering Review. 8 (1): 49–85. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.33.2205. doi:10.1017/S0269888900000060. S2CID 18126815.
• Fransella, Fay; Dalton, Peggy (2000) [1990]. Personal construct counselling in action (2nd ed.). London; Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0761966142. OCLC 44502510.
• Riemann, Rainer (April 1990). "The bipolarity of personal constructs". International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology. 3 (2): 149–165. doi:10.1080/10720539008412806.
• Stewart, Valerie; Stewart, Andrew; Fonda, Nickie (1981). Business applications of repertory grid. London; New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0070845497. OCLC 8061567.
• Fransella, Fay; Bell, Richard; Bannister, Donald (2004) [1977]. A manual for repertory grid technique (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0470854907. OCLC 52587457.
• Bannister, Donald; Fransella, Fay (1986) [1971]. Inquiring man: the psychology of personal constructs (3rd ed.). London; Dover, NH: Croom Helm. ISBN 978-0709939504. OCLC 12583609.
• Bannister, Donald, ed. (1970). Perspectives in personal construct theory. London; New York: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0120779604. OCLC 131128.
• Kelly, George; Maher, Brendan A. (1969). Clinical psychology and personality: the selected papers of George Kelly. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471563563. OCLC 6272.
• Kelly, George (1991) [1955]. The psychology of personal constructs. London; New York: Routledge in association with the Centre for Personal Construct Psychology. ISBN 978-0415037990. OCLC 21760190. Originally published as: Kelly, George (1955). The psychology of personal constructs. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. OCLC 217761.

Further reading

• Winter, David A.; Reed, Nick, eds. (2016). The Wiley handbook of personal construct psychology. Chichester, UK; Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9781118508275. ISBN 9781118508312. OCLC 913829512.
• Salla, Marta; Feixas, Guillem; Ballén, Cristina; Muñoz, Dámaris; Compañ, Victoria (January 2015). "The couple's grid: a tool for assessing interpersonal construction in couples". Journal of Constructivist Psychology. 28 (1): 53–66. doi:10.1080/10720537.2013.859110. S2CID 144443174.
• Winter, David A.; Procter, Harry (2014). "Formulation in personal and relational construct psychology: seeing the world through clients' eyes". In Johnstone, Lucy; Dallos, Rudi (eds.). Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy: making sense of people's problems (2nd ed.). London; New York: Routledge. pp. 145–172. ISBN 9780415682305. OCLC 894506578.
• Neimeyer, Robert A. (2009). Constructivist psychotherapy: distinctive features. The CBT distinctive features series. Hove, East Sussex; New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415442336. OCLC 237402656.
• Gabalda, Isabel Caro; Neimeyer, Robert A.; Newman, Cory F. (December 2009). "Theory and practice in the cognitive psychotherapies: convergence and divergence". Journal of Constructivist Psychology. 23 (1): 65–83. doi:10.1080/10720530903400996. S2CID 144796068.
• Leitner, Larry M.; Thomas, Jill C., eds. (2009). Personal constructivism: theory and applications. New York: Pace University Press. ISBN 978-0944473948. OCLC 434613248.
• Winter, David A. (September 2008). "Cognitive behaviour therapy: from rationalism to constructivism?". European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling. 10 (3): 221–229. doi:10.1080/13642530802337959. S2CID 145611174.
• Stein, Miriam (June 2007). "Nonverbal techniques in personal construct psychotherapy". Journal of Constructivist Psychology. 20 (2): 103–124. doi:10.1080/10720530601074689. S2CID 144225266.
• Caputi, Peter; Foster, Heather; Viney, Linda L., eds. (2006). Personal construct psychology: new ideas. Chichester, UK; Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. doi:10.1002/9780470713044. ISBN 978-0470019436. OCLC 694910981.
• Milton, Nick R.; Clarke, David; Shadbolt, Nigel (December 2006). "Knowledge engineering and psychology: towards a closer relationship" (PDF). International Journal of Human–Computer Studies. 64 (12): 1214–1229. doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2006.08.001.
• Raskin, Jonathan D.; Bridges, Sara K., eds. (2002). Studies in meaning: exploring constructivist psychology. New York: Pace University Press. ISBN 978-0944473573. OCLC 48390934.
• Neimeyer, Robert A.; Mahoney, Michael J., eds. (1995). Constructivism in psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ISBN 978-1557982797. OCLC 31518985.
• Epting, Franz R.; Probert, James S.; Pittman, Stephen D. (January 1993). "Alternative strategies for construct elicitation: experimenting with experience". International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology. 6 (1): 79–98. doi:10.1080/08936039308404333.
• Winter, David A. (1992). Personal construct psychology in clinical practice: theory, research, and applications. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415005272. OCLC 23082076.
• Soldz, Stephen (October 1988). "Constructivist tendencies in recent psychoanalysis". International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology. 1 (4): 329–347. doi:10.1080/10720538808412783.
• Mahoney, Michael J.; Lyddon, William J. (April 1988). "Recent developments in cognitive approaches to counseling and psychotherapy". The Counseling Psychologist. 16 (2): 190–234. doi:10.1177/0011000088162001. S2CID 145762685.
• Fransella, Fay; Thomas, Laurie F., eds. (1988). Experimenting with personal construct psychology. London; New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0710210623. OCLC 15855887.
• Epting, Franz R.; Landfield, Alvin W., eds. (1985). Anticipating personal construct psychology. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0803228627. OCLC 11290933.
• Bannister, Donald, ed. (1985). Issues and approaches in personal construct theory. London; Orlando, FL: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0120779802. OCLC 10996166.
• Epting, Franz R.; Neimeyer, Robert A., eds. (1984). Personal meanings of death: applications of personal construct theory to clinical practice. Series in death education, aging, and health care. Washington, DC: Hemisphere Pub. Corp. ISBN 978-0891163633. OCLC 9557799.
• Reason, Peter; Rowan, John, eds. (1981). Human inquiry: a sourcebook of new paradigm research. Chichester, UK; New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0471279358. OCLC 7206012.
• Gaines, Brian R.; Shaw, Mildred L. G. (July 1980). "New directions in the analysis and interactive elicitation of personal construct systems". International Journal of Man-Machine Studies. 13 (1): 81–116. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.414.3762. doi:10.1016/S0020-7373(80)80038-1.
• Fransella, Fay, ed. (1978). Personal construct psychology, 1977. Second International Congress on Personal Construct Theory. London; New York: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0122654602. OCLC 5674889.
• Bannister, Donald, ed. (1977). New perspectives in personal construct theory. London; New York: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0120779406. OCLC 10274182.

External links

• "The PCP Portal". www.pcp-net.de.
• "Centre for Personal Construct Psychology". www.centrepcp.co.uk.