List of emperors of the Ming dynasty

Emperor of the Great Ming
大明皇帝
Imperial
Portrait of the Jiajing Emperor (r. 1521–1567) wearing a robe adorned with twelve dragons. The sun and moon drawn on the shoulders form the character ming ('bright'), the name of the dynasty.[1] National Palace Museum, Taipei.
Details
Style	Your Majesty, His Majesty the Emperor
First monarch	Hongwu Emperor
Last monarch	Chongzhen Emperor (Ming dynasty) Yongli Emperor (Southern Ming)
Formation	1368
Abolition	1644 (Ming dynasty) 1662 (Southern Ming)
Residence	Ming Palace, Nanjing Forbidden City, Beijing Varies according to the Southern Ming regimes
Appointer	Hereditary

The emperors of the Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu, ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (221 BC – 1912). Members of the Ming dynasty continued to rule a series of rump states in southern China, commonly known as the Southern Ming, until 1662; the Ming dynasty followed the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu-led Qing dynasty.

The Ming dynasty was founded by the peasant rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, known as the Hongwu Emperor. The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620), who ruled for 48 years; the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor, who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong, who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71.^[2]

The emperor of the Ming dynasty, following a practice established in the Zhou dynasty, was known as the "Son of Heaven" (天子; Tianzi).^[3] He was seen as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors.^[4] Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of the empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of envoys, and the metropolitan examinations. During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him.^[5] However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries.^[6] When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard.^[7]

Of sixteen Ming emperors, fourteen resided in the Forbidden City, a 72 ha (180-acre) complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing. Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing.^[8]

Background

See also: History of the Ming dynasty and Government of the Ming dynasty

• The Hongwu Emperor (top left), who proclaimed the Ming dynasty on 23 January 1368, and his son, the Yongle Emperor (top right), whose reign is often seen as the "second founding" of the Ming dynasty since he reversed many of his father's policies.^[9]
• The Wanli Emperor (bottom left), the longest-reigning Ming emperor,^[2][10] and his son, the Taichang Emperor (bottom right), whose reign was the shortest in the history of the Ming dynasty, in contrast to his father's longest reign.^[2]

The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor), who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion. Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and forced the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Great Ming (大明; Da Ming) and declared himself its first emperor.^[11]

The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture. According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions, the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of the emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor, who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun, as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son, the future Taichang Emperor.^[12] The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor.^[13]

The Wanli Emperor on his state barge as depicted in the Return Clearing (National Palace Museum, Taiwan). Imperial journeys were used to impress the population with the emperor's power and wealth, and he travelled in luxury with a vast entourage. Journeys by water provided a useful opportunity for inspecting the upkeep of the all-important water-transport system and the maintenance of irrigation works and dykes.^[14]

The emperor, or huangdi, was the supreme head of state, a tradition that dated back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty.^[15] In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and the entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges.^[16] As the dynasty progressed, the successors of the Hongwu Emperor lacked his decisiveness and were constrained by traditional limitations.^[17] The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country.^[18] Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters.^[18] Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War. In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates.^[18] Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions.^[17]

During the reigns of the Hongwu Emperor and his successors, China generally experienced a period of economic growth and political stability.^[19] However, in the 17th century, a combination of climate changes and poor economic policies led to widespread famines and epidemics. As a result, the government's authority weakened, and numerous uprisings erupted. In 1644, the rebel army successfully captured Beijing, leading to the suicide of the last Ming emperor, the Chongzhen Emperor (r. 1627–1644).^[20] The leader of the uprising, Li Zicheng, declared himself the emperor of the new Shun dynasty. To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui, the last Ming general in the northeast, invited the Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains. The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year.^[21]

Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China. However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang, was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to the emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty.^[22]

List of emperors

The emperor's personal name (名字; Mingzi) was tabooed after his ascension to the throne. He was referred to and addressed with titles of varying degrees of formality—Your Majesty (陛下; Bixia), His Majesty the Emperor (皇上 Huangshang, or simply 上 Shang).^[23] After death, the emperor received an honorary posthumous name (謚號; Shihao), usually consisting of nineteen written characters for emperors of the Ming dynasty; however, the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, was honored with a name of twenty-three written characters. Another name given posthumously was the temple name (廟號; Miaohao), and along with the posthumous name, they were used for worship in the Imperial Ancestral Temple.^[24] Due to the repetition of the same temple and posthumous names for emperors of different dynasties, the dynastic name is used as a differentiator when necessary. For example, the Hongwu Emperor is frequently referred to as "Ming Taizu".^[25]

Era name (年號; Nianhao), or "reign title", was chosen at the beginning of the emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, and/or social landscapes at the time.^[25] During the Ming dynasty, except for Emperor Yingzong, the emperors only declared one era name during their reign, whereas emperors of previous dynasties usually had multiple era names. As a result, the emperors of the Ming dynasty were commonly referred to by their single era names.^[26]

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

Portrait	Emperor name (birth–death)	Personal name	Reign	Era name	Posthumous name[a]	Temple name
	Hongwu Emperor 洪武帝 (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398) [28]	Zhu Yuanzhang 朱元璋	23 January 1368 – 24 June 1398	Hongwu 洪武 23 January 1368 – 5 February 1399[b]	Emperor Gao 高皇帝	Taizu 太祖
	Jianwen Emperor 建文帝 (5 December 1377 – 13 July 1402) [31]	Zhu Yunwen 朱允炆	30 June 1398 – 13 July 1402	Jianwen 建文 6 February 1399 – 13 July 1402	Emperor Hui 惠皇帝	Huizong[c] 惠宗
	Yongle Emperor 永樂帝 (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424) [33]	Zhu Di 朱棣	17 July 1402 – 12 August 1424	Yongle 永樂 23 January 1403 – 19 January 1425	Emperor Wen 文皇帝	Chengzu[d] 成祖
	Hongxi Emperor 洪熙帝 (16 August 1378 – 29 May 1425) [34]	Zhu Gaochi 朱高熾	12 August 1424 – 29 May 1425	Hongxi 洪熙 20 January 1425 – 7 February 1426	Emperor Zhao 昭皇帝	Renzong 仁宗
	Xuande Emperor 宣德帝 (16 March 1399 – 31 January 1435) [35]	Zhu Zhanji 朱瞻基	29 May 1425 – 31 January 1435	Xuande 宣德 8 February 1426 – 17 January 1436	Emperor Zhang 章皇帝	Xuanzong 宣宗
	Emperor Yingzong 英宗 (29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464) [36]	Zhu Qizhen 朱祁鎮	31 January 1435 – 22 September 1449	Zhengtong 正統 18 January 1436 – 13 January 1450	Emperor Rui 睿皇帝	Yingzong 英宗
			11 February 1457 – 23 February 1464	Tianshun[e] 天順 11 February 1457 – 26 January 1465
	Jingtai Emperor 景泰帝 (21 September 1428 – 14 March 1457) [38]	Zhu Qiyu 朱祁鈺	22 September 1449 – 11 February 1457	Jingtai 景泰 14 January 1450 – 11 February 1457	Emperor Jing 景皇帝	Daizong 代宗
	Chenghua Emperor 成化帝 (9 December 1447 – 9 September 1487) [39]	Zhu Jianru 朱見濡	23 February 1464 – 9 September 1487	Chenghua 成化 27 January 1465 – 13 January 1488	Emperor Chun 純皇帝	Xianzong 憲宗
	Hongzhi Emperor 弘治帝 (30 July 1470 – 8 June 1505) [40]	Zhu Youcheng 朱祐樘	9 September 1487 – 8 June 1505	Hongzhi 弘治 14 January 1488 – 23 January 1506	Emperor Jing 敬皇帝	Xiaozong 孝宗
	Zhengde Emperor 正德帝 (26 October 1491 – 20 April 1521) [41]	Zhu Houzhao 朱厚照	8 June 1505 – 20 April 1521	Zhengde 正德 27 January 1522 – 27 January 1522	Emperor Yi 毅皇帝	Wuzong 武宗
	Jiajing Emperor 嘉靖帝 (16 September 1507 – 23 January 1567) [42]	Zhu Houcong 朱厚熜	27 May 1521 – 23 January 1567	Jiajing 嘉靖 28 January 1522 – 8 February 1567	Emperor Su 肅皇帝	Shizong 世宗
	Longqing Emperor 隆慶帝 (4 March 1537 – 5 July 1572) [43]	Zhu Zaiji 朱載坖	23 January 1567 – 5 July 1572	Longqing 隆慶 9 February 1567 – 1 February 1573	Emperor Zhuang 莊皇帝	Muzong 穆宗
	Wanli Emperor 萬曆帝 (4 September 1563 – 18 August 1620) [44]	Zhu Yijun 朱翊鈞	5 July 1572 – 18 August 1620	Wanli 萬曆 2 February 1573 – 27 August 1620	Emperor Xian 顯皇帝	Shenzong 神宗
	Taichang Emperor 泰昌帝 (28 August 1582 – 26 September 1620) [45]	Zhu Changluo 朱常洛	28 August – 26 September 1620	Taichang 泰昌 28 August 1620 – 21 January 1621	Emperor Zhen 貞皇帝	Guangzong 光宗
	Tianqi Emperor 天啓帝 (23 December 1605 – 30 September 1627) [46]	Zhu Youjiao 朱由校	26 September 1620 – 30 September 1627	Tianqi 天啟 22 January 1621 – 4 February 1628	Emperor Zhe 悊皇帝	Xizong 熹宗
	Chongzhen Emperor 崇禎帝 (6 February 1611 – 25 April 1644) [47]	Zhu Youjian 朱由檢	2 October 1627 – 25 April 1644	Chongzhen 崇禎 5 February 1628 – 25 April 1644	Emperor Min 愍皇帝	Sizong 思宗

Southern Ming (1644–1662)

Title before accession Emperor name (birth–death)	Personal name	Title Reign	Era name	Posthumous name	Temple name
Prince of Fu Hongguang Emperor 弘光帝 (5 September 1607 – 23 May 1646) [48]	Zhu Yousong 朱由崧	Emperor 19 June 1644 – 15 June 1645	Hongguang 弘光 28 January 1645 – 17 August 1645	Emperor Jian 簡皇帝	Anzong 安宗
Prince of Lu (Luh)[f] None, known by his personal name (1608 – 23 May 1646) [49]	Zhu Changfang 朱常淓	Regent 1 July – 6 July 1645	regent Lu (Luh)[g] 潞王監國 1 July – 6 July 1645	—	—
Prince of Tang Longwu Emperor (25 May 1602 – 6 October 1646) 隆武帝 [50]	Zhu Yujian 朱聿鍵	Emperor 18 August 1645 – 6 October 1646	Longwu 隆武 18 August 1645 – 4 February 1647	Emperor Xiang 襄皇帝	Shaozong 紹宗
Prince of Lu (Lou)[f] None, known by his personal name (6 July 1618 – 23 December 1662) [51]	Zhu Yihai 朱以海	Regent 7 September 1645 – 1653	regent Lu[g] 魯監國 16 February 1646 – 1653	—	—
Prince of Tang Shaowu Emperor 紹武帝 (1605 – 20 January 1647) [52]	Zhu Yuyue 朱聿鐭	Emperor 11 December 1646 – 20 January 1647	Shaowu[h] 紹武	—	—
Prince of Gui Yongli Emperor 永曆帝 (1 November 1623 – 1 June 1662) [53]	Zhu Youlang 朱由榔	Emperor 24 December 1646 – 1 June 1662	Yongli 永曆 5 February 1647 – 1 June 1662	Emperor Kuang 匡皇帝	Zhaozong 昭宗

Posthumously recognized emperors

Personal name (birth–death)	Posthumous name	Temple name	Year recognized	Notes
Zhu Bailiu [zh] 朱百六 (Unknown) [54]	Emperor Xuan 玄皇帝	Dezu 德祖	1368	[i]
Zhu Sijiu [zh] 朱四九 (Unknown) [54]	Emperor Heng 恆皇帝	Yizu 懿祖	1368	[j]
Zhu Chuyi [zh] 朱初一 (Unknown) [54]	Emperor Yu 裕皇帝	Xizu 熙祖	1368	[k]
Zhu Shizhen 朱世珍 (1281–1344) [54]	Emperor Chun 淳皇帝	Renzu 仁祖	1368	[l]
Zhu Biao 朱標 (10 October 1355 – 17 May 1392) [55]	Emperor Xiaokang 孝康皇帝	Xingzong 興宗	1399 1644	[m]
Zhu Youyuan 朱祐杬 (22 July 1476 – 13 July 1519) [58]	Emperor Xian 獻皇帝	Ruizong 睿宗	1538	[n]
Zhu Changxun 朱常洵 (22 February 1586 – 2 March 1641) [59]	Emperor Gong 恭皇帝 Emperor Xiao 孝皇帝	Gongzong 恭宗	1644	[o]
Zhu Yuwen [zh] 朱宇溫 (1490–1560) [60]	Emperor Hui 惠皇帝	—	1645	[p]
Zhu Zhouyong [zh] 朱宙栐 (1538–1564) [60]	Emperor Shun 順皇帝	—	1645	[q]
Zhu Shuohuang [zh] 朱碩熿 (Unknown – 24 January 1630) [60]	Emperor Duan 端皇帝	—	1645	[r]
Zhu Qisheng [zh] 朱器墭 (Unknown – 1629) [60]	Emperor Xuan 宣皇帝	—	1645	[s]
Zhu Cilang 朱慈烺 (26 February 1629 – June 1644) [61]	Emperor Dao 悼皇帝	—	1646	[t]
Zhu Changying 朱常瀛 (25 April 1597 – 21 December 1645) [59]	Emperor Duan 端皇帝	Lizong 禮宗	1646	[u]

Timeline

See also

• Ming emperors family tree
• List of vassal prince peerages of the Ming dynasty
• Dynasties of China
• List of Chinese monarchs
• Southern Ming topics

Notes

1. These are just the shortened versions of the names. The Hongxi Emperor's full posthumous name, for example, was actually "Emperor Jingtian Tidao Chuncheng Zhide Hongwen Qinwu Zhangsheng Daxiao Zhao" (敬天體道純誠至德弘文欽武章聖達孝昭皇帝; 'Respecter of Heaven, Embodiment of the Way, Pure in Sincerity, Perfect in Virtue, Extensive in Culture, Dominant in Militancy, Standard of Sageliness, Thorought in Filial Piety, Luminous Emperor').^[27]
2. After the Jianwen Emperor died in a palace fire, the Yongle Emperor ascended to the throne. In an attempt to diminish the legacy of his predecessor, he chose not to give him a temple name.^[29] Additionally, he retroactively abolished the Jianwen era and extended the Hongwu era in its place.^[30]
3. The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.^[32]
4. Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment.^[32]
5. Emperor Yingzong was captured by the Mongols in 1449, and his brother, the Jingtai Emperor, ascended to the throne. After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong returned to the throne and declared a new era, Tianshun.^[37]
6. The two characters are both pronounced Lu but with different tones; to distinguish them in Roman script, one is usually kept as Lu and the other spelled differently. Luh is from Cambridge History of China; Lou is from A.C. Moule's Rulers of China (1957). When one irregular spelling is used, the other is kept as regular (Lu). The two systems are distinct and not used simultaneously.
7. Not an actual era name, but used in place of an era name and served a similar function.
8. The era name Shaowu was originally planned to supersede Longwu in 1647, but the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended before the era name was put into effective use.
9. Great-great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor
10. Great-grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor
11. Grandfather of the Hongwu Emperor
12. Father of the Hongwu Emperor
13. Son of the Hongwu Emperor, father of the Jianwen Emperor, who posthumously recognized him as emperor. After overthrowing the Jianwen Emperor in 1402, the Yongle Emperor abolished Zhu Biao's emperor status.^[56] In 1644, Zhu Biao was again promoted to the status of emperor.^[57]
14. Father of the Jiajing Emperor
15. Father of the Hongguang Emperor, son of the Wanli Emperor
16. Great-great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors
17. Great-grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors
18. Grandfather of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors
19. Father of the Longwu and Shaowu emperors
20. Son of the Chongzhen Emperor
21. Father of the Yongli Emperor, son of the Wanli Emperor

References

Citations

1. Brook (2010), p. 12.
2. Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 16.
3. Paludan (1998), pp. 6–7.
4. "The Emperor in the Cosmic Order". Asia for Educators (AFE), Weatherhead East Asian Institute at Columbia University.
5. Duhalde, Marcelo (8 August 2018). "Life inside the Forbidden City. Chapter 3". South China Morning Post.
6. Ch'ien (1982), p. 96.
7. Paludan (1998), pp. 177, 180.
8. "Forbidden City". Encyclopædia Britannica.
9. Atwell (2002), p. 84.
10. Melvin, Shelia (7 September 2011). "China's Reluctant Emperor". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
11. Dillon (2016), p. 444.
12. Huang (1997).
13. Huang (1997), p. 175.
14. Paludan (1998), p. 180.
15. Mote (2003), p. 98.
16. Ch'ien (1982), p. 91.
17. Ch'ien (1982), p. 93.
18. Hucker (1966), p. 41.
19. Fan (2016), p. 97.
20. Paludan (1998), p. 187.
21. Atwell (1988), p. 639.
22. Dennerline (1985), pp. 824–825.
23. Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17; Wilkinson 2000, pp. 109–110.
24. Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, pp. 288, 290–291; Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17.
25. Theobald, Ulrich (23 September 2011). "Chinese History – Names of Persons and Titles of Rulers". Chinaknowledge – a universal guide for China studies. Retrieved 10 July 2013.^{[better source needed]}
26. Twitchett & Mote 1998, p. 17; Wilkinson 2000, pp. 294–295.
27. Twitchett & Mote (1998), p. 17.
28. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 381–392; Paludan 1998; Langlois 1988, pp. 107–181; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
29. Goodrich & Fang (1976), p. 397.
30. Tsai (2002), p. 88.
31. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 397–404; Paludan 1998, p. 163; Chan 1988, pp. 184–204; Moule 1957, p. 106; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
32. Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
33. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 355–364; Paludan 1998, pp. 163–167; Chan 1988, pp. 205–275; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
34. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 338–340; Paludan 1998, pp. 167–169; Chan 1988, pp. 276–283; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
35. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 279–289; Paludan 1998, p. 169; Chan 1988, pp. 284–304; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
36. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 289–294; Paludan 1998, pp. 170–171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 305–324, 339–342; Moule 1957, p. 107; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
37. Paludan (1998), p. 171.
38. Goodrich & Fang 1976; Paludan 1998, p. 171; Twitchett & Grimm 1988, pp. 325–338; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
39. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 298–304; Paludan 1998, pp. 173–174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
40. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 375–380; Paludan 1998, p. 174; Mote 1988, pp. 343–369; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
41. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 307–315; Paludan 1998, pp. 176–178; Geiss 1988a, pp. 403–439; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
42. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 315–322; Paludan 1998, pp. 178–180; Geiss 1988b, pp. 440–510; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
43. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 365–367; Paludan 1998, p. 180; Huang 1988, pp. 511–513; Moule 1957, p. 108; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
44. Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 324–338; Paludan 1998, pp. 180–183; Huang 1988, pp. 511–517; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
45. Kennedy 1943a, pp. 176–177; Paludan 1998, p. 183; Atwell 1988, pp. 590–594; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 885.
46. Kennedy 1943b, p. 190; Paludan 1998, pp. 183, 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 595–610; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
47. Kennedy 1943c, pp. 191–192; Paludan 1998, p. 187; Atwell 1988, pp. 611–636; Moule 1957, p. 109; Wilkinson 2018, p. 886.
48. Kennedy 1943d, pp. 195–196; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
49. Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Kerlouegan 2011, p. 51.
50. Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
51. Kennedy 1943g, pp. 180–182; Bo 2010, p. 543; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
52. Kennedy 1943e, pp. 196–198; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii.
53. Kennedy 1943f, pp. 193–195; Moule 1957, p. 109; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxiii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. xxi.
54. Zhang (1739), vol. 2.
55. Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Qian 2016, vol. 7; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii; Goodrich & Fang 1976, pp. 346–347.
56. Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Goodrich & Fang 1976, p. 347.
57. Qian (2016), vol. 7.
58. Zhang 1739, vol. 115; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
59. Qian 2016, vols. 7, 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.
60. Qian (2016), vols. 7, 26.
61. Qian 2016, vol. 26; Twitchett & Mote 1988, p. xxii.

Works cited

• Zhang, Tingyu (1739). Ming Shi 明史 [History of Ming] (in Literary Chinese).
• Dennerline, Jerry P. (1985). "The Southern Ming, 1644–1662. By Lynn A. Struve". The Journal of Asian Studies. 44 (4). JSTOR 2056469. S2CID 162510092.
• Atwell, William S (2002). "Time, Money, and the Weather: Ming China and the "Great Depression" of the Mid-Fifteenth Century". The Journal of Asian Studies. 61 (1). ISSN 0021-9118.
• Huang, Ray (1997). China: a macro history. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. ISBN 1-56324-730-5.
• Ch'ien, Mu (1982). Traditional government in imperial China: a critical analysis. Translated by Hsüeh, Chün-tu; Totten, George O. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press. ISBN 962-201-254-X.
• Hucker, Charles O (1966). Thensorial system of Ming China. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0289-6.
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Further reading

• Heer, Ph. de (1986). The Care-taker Emperor: Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 9004078983.

External links

• Media related to Emperors of the Ming Dynasty at Wikimedia Commons