The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire from the granting of the name and title Augustus to Octavian by the Roman Senate in 27 BC onward.[1] Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the Senate) and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position, and emperors gradually grew more monarchical and authoritarian.[2]
The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until the late third or early fourth century.[3] The modern word "emperor" derives from the title imperator, that was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps.[4] For example, Augustus's official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.[5] The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied much of Europe and portions of North Africa and the Middle East. Under the republic, the Senate and People of Rome authorized provincial governors, who answered only to them, to rule regions of the empire.[6] The chief magistrates of the republic were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, who also controlled and determined their election.[7] Often, the emperors themselves, or close family, were selected as consul.[8]
After the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian increased the authority of the emperor and adopted the title dominus noster (our lord). The rise of powerful barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire, the challenge they posed to the defense of far-flung borders as well as an unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration of the Empire geographically with a co-augustus in 286. In 330, Constantine the Great, the emperor who accepted Christianity, established a second capital in Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople. Historians consider the Dominate period of the empire to have begun with either Diocletian or Constantine, depending on the author.[9] For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognized senior emperor, with the division usually based on geographic regions. This division became permanent after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have traditionally dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts.[10]
The fall of the Western Roman Empire is dated either from the de facto date of 476, when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer, or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court.[11] Historians typically refer to the empire in the centuries that followed as the "Byzantine Empire", governed by the Byzantine emperors.[a] Given that "Byzantine" is a later historiographical designation and the inhabitants and emperors of the empire continually maintained Roman identity, this designation is not used universally and continues to be a subject of specialist debate.[b] Under Justinian I, in the sixth century, a large portion of the western empire was retaken, including Italy, Africa, and part of Spain.[15] Over the course of the centuries thereafter, most of the imperial territories were lost, which eventually restricted the empire to Anatolia and the Balkans.[c] The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos at the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were conquered by the Ottoman Turks led by Sultan Mehmed II.[21][d] In the aftermath of the conquest, Mehmed II proclaimed himself kayser-i Rûm ("Caesar of the Romans"),[e] thus claiming to be the new emperor,[27]a claim maintained by succeeding sultans.[28] Competing claims of succession to the Roman Empire have also been forwarded by various other states and empires, and by numerous later pretenders.[29]
Coin of Pescennius Niger, a Roman usurper who claimed imperial power AD 193–194. Legend: IMP CAES C PESC NIGER IVST AVG
While the imperial government of the Roman Empire was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars.[30] From the rise of Augustus, the first Roman emperor, in 27 BC to the sack of Rome in AD 455, there were over a hundred usurpations or attempted usurpations (an average of one usurpation or attempt about every four years). From the murder of Commodus in 192 until the fifth century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. Very few emperors died of natural causes, with regicide in practical terms having become the expected end of a Roman emperor by late antiquity.[31] The distinction between a usurper and a legitimate emperor is a blurry one, given that a large number of emperors commonly considered legitimate began their rule as usurpers, revolting against the previous legitimate emperor.[32]
True legitimizing structures and theories were weak, or wholly absent, in the Roman Empire,[31] and there were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by the Roman army.[33] Dynastic succession was not legally formalized, but also not uncommon, with powerful rulers sometimes succeeding in passing power on to their children or other relatives. While dynastic ties could bring someone to the throne, they were not a guarantee that their rule would not be challenged.[34] With the exception of Titus (r. 79–81; son of Vespasian), no son of an emperor who ruled after the death of his father died a natural death until Constantine I in 337. Control of Rome itself and approval of the Roman Senate held some importance as legitimising factors, but were mostly symbolic. Emperors who began their careers as usurpers had often been deemed public enemies by the senate before they managed to take the city. Emperors did not need to be acclaimed or crowned in Rome itself, as demonstrated in the Year of the Four Emperors (69), when claimants were crowned by armies in the Roman provinces, and the senate's role in legitimising emperors had almost faded into insignificance by the Crisis of the Third Century (235–285). By the end of the third century, Rome's importance was mainly ideological, with several emperors and usurpers even beginning to place their court in other cities in the empire, closer to the imperial frontier.[35]
Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as proclamation by the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, wearing imperial regalia, distributing one's own coins or statues and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors.[36] There were no constitutional or legal distinctions that differentiated legitimate emperors and usurpers. In ancient Roman texts, the differences between emperors and "tyrants" (the term typically used for usurpers) is often a moral one (with the tyrants ascribed wicked behaviour) rather than a legal one. Typically, the actual distinction was whether the claimant had been victorious or not. In the Historia Augusta, an ancient Roman collection of imperial biographies, the usurper Pescennius Niger (193–194) is expressly noted to only be a tyrant because he was defeated by Septimius Severus (r. 193–211).[37] This is also followed in modern historiography, where, in the absence of constitutional criteria separating them, the main factor that distinguishes usurpers from legitimate Roman emperors is their degree of success. What makes a figure who began as a usurper into a legitimate emperor is typically either that they managed to gain the recognition from a more senior, legitimate emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power from them by force.[34]
List inclusion criteria
Given that a concept of constitutional legitimacy was irrelevant in the Roman Empire, and emperors were only 'legitimate' in so far as they were able to be accepted in the wider empire,[38] this list of emperors operates on a collection of inclusion criteria:
Imperial claimants whose power across the empire became, or from the beginning was, absolute and who ruled undisputed are treated as legitimate emperors.[39] From 286 onward, when imperial power was usually divided among two colleagues in the east and west,[40] control over the respective half is sufficient even if a claimant was not recognized in the other half, such as was the case for several of the last few emperors in the west.[41]
Imperial claimants who were proclaimed emperors by another, legitimate, senior emperor, or who were recognized by a legitimate senior emperor, are treated as legitimate emperors.[42] Many emperors ruled alongside one or various joint-emperors. However, and specially from the 4th century onwards, most of these were children who never ruled in their own right. Scholars of the later Empire always omit these rulers,[43] but the same is not always applied during the early Empire.[44] For the purposes of consistency, later senior emperors' tenures as junior co-emperors are not counted as part of their reign. The list also gives all co-emperors their own entry only up to the 4th century.
Imperial claimants who achieved the recognition of the Roman Senate, especially in times of uncertainty and civil war, are, due to the senate's nominal role as an elective body, treated as legitimate emperors.[45] In later times, especially when emperors ruled from other cities, this criterion defaults to the possession and control of Rome itself. In the later eastern empire, possession of the capital of Constantinople was an essential element of imperial legitimacy.[46]
In the case of non-dynastic emperors after or in the middle of the rule of a dynasty, it is customary among historians to group them together with the rulers of said dynasty,[47] an approach that is followed in this list. Dynastic breaks with non-dynastic rulers are indicated with thickened horizontal lines.
16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14 (40 years, 7 months and 3 days)[g]
Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. Gradually acquired further power through grants from, and constitutional settlements with, the Roman Senate. Continuously head of state since 19 August 43 BC, unopposed after the Battle of Actium in 31 BC.
18 September 53 – 9 August (?) 117 (aged 63)First non-Italian emperor. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. Died of natural causes[65]
Son-in-law and adopted son of Antoninus Pius. Until 169 reigned jointly with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, the first time multiple emperors shared power. Since 177 reigned jointly with his son Commodus
4 February 211 – 8 April 217 (6 years, 2 months and 4 days)
Son of Septimius Severus, proclaimed co-emperor on 28 January 198, at age 10. Succeeded jointly with his brother, Geta, in 211
4 April 188 – 8 April 217 (aged 29)First child emperor. Granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. Murdered by a soldier at the instigation of Macrinus[75]
11 April 217 – 8 June 218 (1 year, 1 month and 28 days)
Praetorian prefect of Caracalla, accepted as emperor by the army and Senate after having arranged his predecessor's death in fear of his own life
c. 165 – June 218 (aged approx. 53)First non-senator to become emperor, and first emperor not to visit Rome after acceding. Executed during a revolt of the troops in favor of Elagabalus.[77]
Diadumenian (§) Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus
Late May – June 218 (less than a month)
Son of Macrinus, named co-emperor by his father after the eruption of a rebellion in favor of Elagabalus
14 September 208 – June 218 (aged 9)Caught in flight and executed in favor of Elagabalus[78]
16 May 218 – 13 March 222 (3 years, 9 months and 25 days)
Cousin and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla, acclaimed as emperor by rebellious legions in opposition to Macrinus at the instigation of his grandmother, Julia Maesa
Son of Valerian, appointed joint emperor. Sole emperor after Valerian's capture in 260
218 – c. September 268 (aged 50)Faced multiple revolts & barbarian invasions. Murdered in a conspiracy of army officers, involving Claudius II and Aurelian[103]
Saloninus[m] (§) Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus
Autumn 260 (c. 1 month)
Son of Gallienus, proclaimed caesar by his father and proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefect Silvanus while besieged by Postumus
Unknown – Late 260Murdered by troops loyal to Postumus[106]
Diocletian "Jovius" Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus
20 November 284 – 1 May 305 (20 years, 5 months and 11 days) Whole; then East
Commander of the imperial bodyguard, acclaimed by the army after death of Numerian, and proceeded to defeat Numerian's brother, Carinus, in battle
22 December c. 243 – 3 December c. 311 (aged approx. 68)Began the last great persecution of Christianity. First emperor to voluntarily abdicate. Died in unclear circumstances, possibly suicide[116]
Maximian "Herculius" Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus
1 April 286[n] – 1 May 305 (19 years and 1 month; West) November 306 – 11 November 308 (2 years; Italy)
c. 250 – c. July 310 (aged approx. 60)Abdicated with Diocletian, later trying to regain power with, and then from, Maxentius, before being probably killed on orders of Constantine I[118]
Son of Maximian and son-in-law of Galerius, seized power in Italy with support of the Praetorian Guard and his father after being passed over in the succession. Not recognized by the other emperors
Constantine I "the Great" Flavius Valerius Constantinus
25 July 306 – 22 May 337 (30 years, 9 months and 27 days) West; then whole
Son of Constantius I, acclaimed by his father's troops as augustus. Accepted as caesar by Galerius, promoted to augustus in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion to caesar in 309
27 February 272/273 – 22 May 337 (aged 64/65)First Christian emperor and founder of Constantinople. Sole ruler of the Empire after defeating Maxentius in 312 and Licinius in 324. Died of natural causes[128]
9 September 337 – January 350 (12 years and 4 months; Middle then West)
Son of Constantine I
322/323 – January/February 350 (aged 27)Ruled Italy, Illyricum and Africa initially, then the western empire after Constantine II's death. Overthrown and killed by Magnentius[130]
9 September 337 – 3 November 361 (24 years, 1 month and 25 days) East; then whole
Son of Constantine I
7 August 317 – 3 November 361 (aged 44)Ruled the east initially, then the whole empire after the death of Magnentius. Died of a fever shortly after planning to fight a war against Julian[131]
27 June 363 – 17 February 364 (7 months and 21 days)
Commander of imperial household guard; acclaimed by the army after Julian's death
330/331 – 17 February 364 (aged 33)Died before reaching the capital, possibly due to inhaling toxic fumes or indigestion. Last emperor to rule the whole Empire during their entire reign[138]
19 January 379 – 17 January 395 (15 years, 11 months and 29 days) East; then whole
Retired general; proclaimed eastern emperor by Gratian after the death of Valens
11 January 346/347 – 17 January 395 (aged 48/49)Last emperor to briefly rule over the two halves of the Empire after the Battle of the Frigidus. Died of natural causes[148]
17 January 395 – 15 August 423 (28 years, 6 months and 29 days; West)
Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 23 January 393. Emperor in the west
9 September 384 – 15 August 423 (aged 38)Reigned under several successive regencies, most notably Stilicho. His reign saw the first sack of Rome in eight centuries. Died of edema[150]
1 May 408 – 28 July 450 (42 years, 2 months and 27 days; East)
Son of Arcadius; co-emperor since 10 January 402. Emperor in the east
10 April 401 – 28 July 450 (aged 49)His reign saw the promulgation of the Theodosian Code and the construction of the Theodosian Walls. Died of a fall from his horse[152]
A leading member of the Senate, proclaimed emperor by Alaric after the Sack of Rome. Emperor in the west
Unknown lifespanDeposed by Alaric after reconciling with Honorius. Tried to claim the throne again 414–415 but was defeated and forced into exile; fate unknown[153]
9 July 455 – 17 October 456 (1 year, 3 months and 8 days)
General; proclaimed emperor by the Visigoths and Gallo-Romans after the death of Petronius Maximus
Unknown – 456/457Defeated and deposed by the magister militumRicimer, became a bishop. Died shortly after of either natural causes, strangulation, or being starved to death[159]
24 June 474 – 28 August 475 (1 year, 2 months and 4 days)August 475 – 9 May 480 (4 years and 8 months, in Dalmatia)
General; married to a relative of Verina, the wife of the eastern emperor Leo I. Installed as western emperor by Leo
Unknown – 9 May 480Fled to Dalmatia in the face of an attack by his magister militumOrestes. Continued to claim to be emperor in exile. Murdered by his retainers[165]
31 October 475 – 4 September 476 (10 months and 4 days)
Proclaimed emperor by his father, the magister militum Orestes
Roughly 465 – after 507/511?The last western emperor. Deposed by the Germanic general Odoacer and retired. Possibly alive as late as 507 or 511; fate unknown[166]
Unknown – 5 October 578Lost most of Italy to the Lombards by 570. Suffered an attack of dementia in 574, whereafter the government was run by regents. Died of natural causes[174]
4 November 711 – 3 June 713 (1 year, 6 months and 30 days)
General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Justinian II
Unknown – 20 January 714/715Deposed and blinded in favor of Anastasius II, later died of natural causes[191]
Anastasius II Artemius Anastasius Ἀρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος
4 June 713 – fall 715 (less than 2 years)
Senior court official, proclaimed emperor after the deposition of Philippicus
Unknown – 1 June 719Abdicated to Theodosius III after a six-month civil war, becoming a monk. Beheaded by Leo III after an attempt to retake the throne[192]
19 August 797 – 31 October 802 (5 years, 2 months and 12 days)
Widow of Leo IV and former regent of Constantine VI. Became co-ruler in 792. Dethroned and blinded her son Constantine in 797, becoming the first female ruler of the empire
c. 752 – 9 August 803 (aged approx. 51)Deposed by Nikephoros I and exiled to Lesbos, where she died of natural causes[199]
c. 770 – 11 January 844 (aged approx. 74)Abdicated in 813 in favor of Leo V after suffering a defeat at the Battle of Versinikia and retired as a monk[202]
6 June 913 – 9 November 959 (46 years, 5 months and 3 days)
Son of Leo VI; co-emperor since 15 May 908. Successively dominated by regents and co-emperors until 27 January 945, when he deposed Romanos I's sons
17/18 May 905 – 9 November 959 (aged 54)Saw the beginning of renewed expansion in the East against the Arabs. Remembered for his numerous writings. Died of natural causes[212]
Overthrew Constantine VII's regency, married him to his daughter Helena and was made senior co-emperor. Made several sons co-emperors to curb Constantine VII's authority
c. 870 – 15 June 948 (aged approx. 78)Deposed by his sons Stephen and Constantine. Died of natural causes in exile as a monk[213]
16 August 963 – 11 December 969 (6 years, 3 months and 25 days)
General; proclaimed emperor on 2 July 963 against the unpopular Joseph Bringas (regent for the young sons of Romanos II), entered Constantinople on 16 August 963. Married Theophano, the widow of Romanos II
c. 912 – 11 December 969 (aged approx. 57)Reconquered Cilicia & Antioch. Murdered in a conspiracy involving his former supporters (including John I Tzimiskes) and Theophano[215]
10 January 976 – 15 December 1025 (49 years, 11 months and 5 days)
Son of Romanos II; co-emperor since 22 April 960, briefly reigned as senior emperor in March–August 963. Succeeded as senior emperor upon the death of John I
958 – 15 December 1025 (aged 67)The longest-reigning emperor; best known for his reconquest of Bulgaria. Died of natural causes[217]
Daughter of Constantine VIII and widow of Romanos III and Michael IV. Ruled in her own right from Michael V's deposition until her marriage to Constantine IX.
c. 978 – 1050 (aged approx. 72)Died of natural causes[222]
Son of Constantine X; made co-emperor in 1060 with Eudokia and Romanos IV. Proclaimed sole emperor after Romanos' defeat at the Battle of Manzikert
c. 1050 – c. 1090 (aged approx. 40)Lost nearly all of Anatolia to the Turks. Forced to become a monk after a popular uprising. Died of natural causes several years later[232]
3 April 1078 – 1 April 1081 (2 years, 11 months and 29 days)
General; revolted against Michael VII on 2 July or 2 October 1077 and entered Constantinople on 27 March or 3 April. Married Maria of Alania, the former wife of Michael VII
1001/1002 – c. 1081 (aged approx. 80)Abdicated after Alexios I captured Constantinople, became a monk and died of natural causes, probably later in the same year[233]
1 April 1081 – 15 August 1118 (37 years, 4 months and 14 days)withConstantine Doukas (1081–1087; 2nd time)[s]
Nephew of Isaac I, also husband of Irene Doukaina, a grand-niece of Constantine X. General; revolted against Nikephoros III on 14 February 1081. Seized Constantinople on 1 April; crowned on 4 April
c. 1057 – 15 August 1118 (aged approx. 61)Started the Crusades & the reconquest of Anatolia. Died of natural causes[234]
15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143 (24 years, 7 months and 24 days)withAlexios the Younger (1119–1142)[s]
Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since about September 1092
13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143 (aged 55)Reconquered most of Anatolia by the time of his death. Died of injuries sustained in a hunting accident, possibly assassinated (perhaps involving Raymond of Poitiers or supporters of Manuel I)[235]
c. September 1183 – 12 September 1185 (2 years)withJohn Komnenos (1183–1185)[s]
Son of Isaac Komnenos, a son of Alexios I. Overthrew the regency of Alexios II in April 1182, crowned co-emperor in 1183 and shortly thereafter had Alexios II murdered
c. 1118/1120 – 12 September 1185 (aged 64–67)Overthrown by Isaac II, tortured and mutilated in the imperial palace, then slowly dismembered alive by a mob in the Hippodrome[238]
12 September 1185 – 8 April 1195 (9 years, 6 months and 27 days)
Great-grandson of Alexios I. Resisted an order of arrest issued by Andronikos I, after which he was proclaimed emperor by the people of Constantinople. Captured and killed Andronikos I
c. 1156 – January 1204 (aged 47)Suffered the loss of Bulgaria. Overthrown and blinded by Alexios III in 1195, reinstalled in 1203[239]
8 April 1195 – 17/18 July 1203 (8 years, 3 months and 10 days)
Elder brother of Isaac II, overthrew and blinded his brother
c. 1153 – 1211/1212 (aged approx. 58)Fled after brief resistance against the Fourth Crusade. Died a natural death after being captured and forced to become a monk by Theodore I[241]
19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204 (6 months and 8 days)
Son of Isaac II, overthrew Alexios III with the help of the crusaders as part of the Fourth Crusade, then named co-emperor alongside his blinded father
c. 1182/1183 – c. 8 February 1204 (aged approx. 21)Deposed and imprisoned by Alexios V, then strangled in prison[242]
16 August 1258 – 25 December 1261 (3 years, 4 months and 9 days)
Son and co-emperor of Theodore II
25 December 1250 – c. 1305 (aged approx. 55)Blinded, deposed and imprisoned by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261, died in captivity several decades later[247]
1 January 1259 – 11 December 1282 (23 years, 11 months and 10 days)
Great-grandson of Alexios III; became regent for John IV in 1258 and crowned co-emperor in 1259. Regained Constantinople on 25 July 1261, entered the city on 15 August. Became sole ruler after deposing John IV on 25 December
1224/1225 – 11 December 1282 (aged 57/58)Died of dysentery[248]
11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328 (45 years, 5 months and 13 days)
Son of Michael VIII; named co-emperor shortly after 1261, crowned on 8 November 1272
25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332 (aged 72)Deposed by his grandson Andronikos III in 1328 and became a monk, dying of natural causes four years later[249]
21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320 (26 years, 4 months and 21 days)
Son and co-ruler of Andronikos II, named co-emperor in 1281, crowned on 21 May 1294
17 April 1277/1278 – 12 October 1320 (aged 42/43)Allegedly died of grief due to the accidental murder of his second son, probably died of natural causes[250]
Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor between 1308 and 1313. Fought with his grandfather Andronikos II for power from April 1321 onwards. Crowned emperor on 2 February 1325, became sole emperor after deposing Andronikos II
25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341 (aged 44)Last Emperor to effectively control Greece. Died of sudden illness, possibly malaria[251]
15 June 1341 – 16 February 1391 (49 years, 8 months and 1 day)
Details
15 June 1341 – 12 August 1376 (35 years, 1 month and 28 days)
1 July 1379 – 14 April 1390 (10 years, 9 months and 13 days)
17 September 1390 – 16 February 1391 (4 months and 30 days)
Son of Andronikos III, not formally crowned until 19 November 1341. Dominated by regents until 1354, faced numerous usurpations and civil wars throughout his long reign
18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391 (aged 58)Reigned almost 50 years, but only held effective power for 33. Lost almost all territories outside Constantinople. Died of natural causes[252]
8 February 1347 – 10 December 1354 (7 years, 10 months and 2 days)withMatthew Kantakouzenos (1353–1357)[s]
Related to the Palaiologoi through his mother. Proclaimed by the army on 26 October 1341, became regent and senior co-emperor after a lengthy civil war with John V's mother, Anna of Savoy. Entered Constantinople on 8 February, crowned on 21 May 1347
c. 1295 – 15 June 1383 (aged approx. 88)Deposed by John V in another civil war and retired, becoming a monk. Died of natural causes several decades later[253]
12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379 (2 years, 10 months and 19 days) May 1381 – June 1385 (4 years, in Selymbria)
Son of John V and grandson of John VI; named co-emperor and heir in 1352, but imprisoned and partially blinded after a failed rebellion in May 1373. Rebelled again and successfully deposed his father in 1376; not formally crowned until 18 October 1377
11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385 (aged 37)Deposed by John V in 1379; fled to Galata in exile but was restored as co-emperor and heir in May 1381, ruling over Selymbria and the coast of Marmara. Rebelled again in June 1385 but died shortly thereafter[254]
Son of Andronikos IV, co-emperor since 1377; usurped the throne from John V in 1390. Deposed shortly thereafter but granted Thessalonica by Manuel II in 1403, from where he once more ruled as emperor until his death
1370 – 22 September 1408 (aged 38)Ruled Constantinople as regent in 1399–1403 during Manuel II's absence. Died of natural causes[255]
A number of individuals proclaimed themselves emperor (or were proclaimed or appointed as emperor), but are not considered as legitimate emperors because they did not oust the ruling emperor, or did not establish control of the whole empire, or were not accepted by the senate or other imperial colleagues.
Charlemagne was crowned imperator romanorum ("Emperor of the Romans") by Pope Leo III in AD 800. In so doing, the Pope rejected the legitimacy of Empress Irene.[259] The Byzantines never recognized the Holy Roman emperors as "Roman emperors" and called them the 'emperor (or king) of the Franks', to them only the Byzantine Senate (successor to the Roman Senate) and/or the Byzantine military (successor to the Roman military) had the right to appoint a new Roman Emperor. Likewise, Western Europeans didn't recognize the legitimacy of the Byzantine emperors and called them the 'emperor of the Greeks' or the 'emperor of Constantinople'. See also: Problem of two emperors
The Latin Emperor was the ruler of the Latin Empire, the historiographical convention for the Crusader realm, established in Constantinople after the Fourth Crusade (1204) and lasting until the city was recovered by the Byzantine Greeks in 1261. Its name derives from its Catholic and Western European ("Latin") nature. The empire, whose official name was Imperium Romaniae (Latin: "Empire of Romania"), claimed the direct heritage of the Eastern Roman Empire, which had most of its lands taken and partitioned by the crusaders. This claim however was disputed by the Byzantine Greek successor states, the Empire of Nicaea, the Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus. Out of these three, the Nicaeans succeeded in displacing the Latin emperors in 1261 and restored the Byzantine Empire.
Some rulers used the version "despot of Romania" (Romania essentially referring to the territories of the Roman Empire, i.e. Byzantium) or "despot of the Romans" (claiming rulership over the Romans, i.e. the Byzantines/Greeks).
Based on the concept of right of conquest, the sultans of the Ottoman Empire claimed to be the legitimate Roman Emperors, in succession to the Byzantine emperors who had previously ruled from Constantinople. This claim was recognized by the Islamic world, but was never recognized by the Western Europeans. See Ottoman claim to Roman succession
^The term basileus eventually replaced augustus as the official title of the emperor, although both were seen as equals already by the times of Constantine I.[12]
^The Byzantine Empire is universally recognized as the remnant, continuation or later stage of the Roman Empire. There is no universally agreed date used to separate the ancient Roman and "Byzantine" empires, with proposed dates ranging in age from 284 to 717.[13] Some authors reject the term "Byzantine" entirely.[14]
^Spain was lost in 625[16] and Africa in 698.[17] A large portion of Italy was conquered by the Lombards already under Justinian I's successor, Justin II.[18] Rome and its surroundings remained under imperial control until 756, when they became the Papal States,[19] though the last Italian holdouts were not lost until 1071 with the fall of Bari.[20] The seventh century also saw much of the empire's eastern and southern territories lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests.[21]
^There is no generally-accepted count of Roman emperors given that different scholars sometimes include and omit different emperors (see Legitimacy). This list includes 170 emperors, 12 of whose legitimacy is disputed in scholarship (including the obscure figure of Silbannacus, whose existence and role are shrouded in mystery,[22] and the four emperors of Nicaea, who are often seen as the "legitimate" emperors during the interregnum of 1204–1261),[23] and 5 ruling empresses, 2 of which have variable ascribed status (these being Saint Theodora and Eudokia Makrembolitissa, who were rulers in their own right but are still absent in most lists of rulers[24] or just labeled as regents),[25] for a total of 175 monarchs. Also included are 34 junior co-emperors, 3 of whose legitimacy is debated, and 1 junior co-empress (Thekla). All in all, this list thus includes a total of 210 occupants of the Roman imperial office.
^This was one of the titles used for the emperors in Constantinople by Ottoman writers prior to 1453.[26]
^Entries also include the regnal name of each emperor. These generally differed from their original birth name, often adopting elements from the previous emperor.[48]Augustus's full name would be "Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus" according to Roman naming conventions, but he styled himself as "Imperator Caesar Augustus", treating "Caesar" as a family name.[49] Given that "Imperator" was only a victory title, it will be omitted from the emperors' full nomenclature.
^The conventional date for the Empire's founding is 27 BC,[50] when the Senate awarded Octavian the title and name Augustus alongside one of several grants of power.[51] Ancient writers, however, give him a rule of 56 years.[50] He became de facto monarch in 31 BC, after defeating his last remaining opposition at the Battle of Actium.[52] This is a date also used by some writers.[50] Augustus himself dated his accession to legal power to 7 January 43 BC, when he first received imperium.[51] Later that year he became consul (19 August) and then triumvir (27 November) alongside Mark Antony and Lepidus. Augustus thus ruled the Roman state for exactly 56 years, but only 40 as "emperor".[51]
^By this time, 'Caesar' and 'Augustus' are regarded less as personal names and more as imperial titles, with the former denoting the heir-apparent and the latter indicating the emperor himself.[67]
^ abThe junior co-emperors marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures, mostly children, who are usually not counted as "true" emperors given their submissive status to the senior emperor, but are still present in some lists of rulers.[44]
^ abcdefUnless otherwise noted to be some other ambiguity, the emperors marked to be of ambiguous legitimacy are those who fulfill one or more of the inclusion criteria above, but who are not universally regarded by scholars to count as legitimate. In most cases, such figures are those who held power only briefly, and/or who in times of more than one emperor held one of the capitals but never achieved the full recognition of the other emperor(s).[81][82][83][84]
^On account of the limited surviving source material, almost all dates used here are just approximate. The chronology of the whole period is dubious and sources rarely agree on each other, in part due to the fact that many reigns overlap due to most emperors starting as rivals. For an analysis of the chronology, see Rea 1972, Peachin 1990 and Burgess 2014.
^Unmentioned in literary sources and known only from two coins seemingly issued in Rome, implying he was proclaimed emperor in the capital, probably between Aemilianus and Valerian, or against either.[99][100][101]
^Made caesar by his father and only referred to as augustus in a single series of coins, issued while he was besieged in Cologne in 260. Coinage issued after his death honor him as caesar; probably because Gallienus did not want to advertise the death of a second emperor in one year.[104][105]
^The chronology of Maximian's career is disputed. Some authors argue that he was promoted to augustus without ever being caesar, as claimed by many others. Another possible date for his accession as emperor (and the first division of the Roman Empire) is 13 December 285.[117]
^ abLegitimately appointed as co-emperor by Licinius, though as western emperor (in opposition to Constantine I). Referred as caesar in literary sources, but called augustus in coinage. Did not actually rule anything given that Licinius did not control the west.[125]
^Although technically recognized by Constantius II, who even sent him the imperial diadem, Vetranio is often regarded as a usurper.[133]
^From the fourth century, emperors and other high-profile men of non-aristocratic birth often bore the name "Flavius", the family name of the Constantinian dynasty. Because it was often used as a status marker rather than personal name,[137] "Flavius" will generally be omitted in the following entries for simplicity.
^Distinction between nomen, praenomen and cognomen, the core elements of Roman naming conventions, began to fade away from the 3rd century onwards. Given that "new Romans" —that is, barbarians turned citizens— adopted the names of their masters, many citizens adopted the names Julius, Flavius (notable the Constantinians) and Marcus Aurelius (notable the 3rd century emperors), thus making them obsolete as surnames. As a result, most citizens of the Empire, even emperors, reverted back to single-names by the 5th century.[139]
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuAlthough they constitutionally held the same supreme power as their senior counterpart, it is customary among scholars of the later empire to only regard those who actually ruled as emperors, omitting junior co-emperors who only exercised power nominally and never governed in their own name.[144][24]
^From 629 onwards, Heraclius issued administrative documents in Greek.[178] Latin continued to be used in communication with Western Europe until the end of the empire and coins continued to be struck with Latin inscriptions until the early eighth century.[179]
^Heraclius Constantine is often enumerated as 'Constantine III',[181] though this name is also often applied to the earlier western emperor and has also been used for Heraclius Constantine's son Constans II (who actually ruled under the name 'Constantine', 'Constans' being a nickname).[182]
^Latin ceased being used in coin inscriptions under Leo III.[179]
^ abThe empresses marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures who were undisputed as legitimate heads of the imperial government and who are sometimes (including by the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium),[204] though not always, seen as having been empresses regnant.
^ abEmperors began to officially use family names from Constantine IX Monomachos onwards. The sole exception after Constantine IX's reign is Michael VI, whose family name (Bringas) was far less distinguished than those of the other imperial families and thus does not appear in official use.[224]
^Unattested in coinage; Leo is only called emperor in a singular letter, while his brother's status can only be deduced from the fact that he was born in the purple and that he also used the "imperial tokens".[230]
^Alexios III used the name Alexios Komnenos Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος) prior to his accession but reigned as Alexios Komnenos, dropping his own family name in order to stress his matrilineal descent from the Komnenos dynasty.[240]
Becker, C. H. (1913). "The Expansion of the Saracens—The East". In Gwatkin, H. M.; Whitney, J. P. (eds.). The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II: The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundation of the Western Empire. New York: The Macmillan Company. OCLC14739796.
Cameron, Alan (1988). "Flavius: a Nicety of Protocol". Latomus. 47 (1): 26–33. JSTOR41540754.
Chalandon, Ferdinand (1923). "The Earlier Comneni". In Tanner, J. R.; Previté-Orton, C. W.; Brooke, Z. N. (eds.). The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453). New York: The Macmillan Company. OCLC14739796.
Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. doi:10.2307/4238646. JSTOR4238646.
Hartmann, L. M. (1913). "Italy under the Lombards". In Gwatkin, H. M.; Whitney, J. P. (eds.). The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II: The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundation of the Western Empire. New York: The Macmillan Company. OCLC14739796.
Hartmann, Udo (2002). Rezension zu: C. Körner: Philippus Arabs [Review of C. Körner: Philip the Arab]. H-Soz-Kult. Kommunikation und Fachinformation für die Geschichtswissenschaften (in German). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN3-1101-7205-4. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
Oikonomides, Nicolas (1977). "John VII Palaeologus and the Ivory Pyxis at Dumbarton Oaks". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 31: 329–337. doi:10.2307/1291411. JSTOR1291411.
Watson, A. (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN0-4150-7248-4.
Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1998). The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century. London: Routledge. ISBN978-0-2039-8231-0.
Harris, Jonathan (2013). "Despots, Emperors, and Balkan Identity in Exile". The Sixteenth Century Journal. 44 (3): 643–661. doi:10.1086/SCJ24244808. JSTOR24244808.
Potter, David (1995). A History of France, 1460–1560: The Emergence of a Nation State. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN978-0-3121-2480-9.
This article is about the characters introduced in the live-action films. For the game characters also found in the films, see List of Resident Evil characters. This list describes original characters introduced in the Resident Evil series of live-action horror films directed by Paul W. S. Anderson. The characters are described, below, using in-universe tone. Alice Milla Jovovich as Alice in Resident Evil: Afterlife Alice (portrayed by Milla Jovovich) is the main protagonist of the Resident E...
هذه المقالة يتيمة إذ تصل إليها مقالات أخرى قليلة جدًا. فضلًا، ساعد بإضافة وصلة إليها في مقالات متعلقة بها. (فبراير 2023) يوليوس أشكينبيانات شخصيةالميلاد 23 أغسطس 1920بروكلينالوفاة 4 يونيو 1982[1] (61 سنة) البرونكس[1] بلد المواطنة الولايات المتحدة المدرسة الأم جامعة كولومبيا J...
Het wapen van het Kollegie van Veenraden van Veenendaal Het wapen van Kollegie van Veenraden van Veenendaal werd op 30 september 1818 bij besluit van de Hoge Raad van Adel aan het Veenraadschap der Geldersche en Stichtsche Veenen bevestigd. In 1949 ging het veenraadschap met de De Dijkstoel van de Rhenensche Nude en de Achterbergsche Hooilanden op in het waterschap Grebbe. Hiermee verviel het wapen. Beschrijving De blazoenering van het wapen luidt als volgt: Een blaauw schild met een op eene ...
Dieser Artikel oder Abschnitt bedarf einer grundsätzlichen Überarbeitung. Näheres sollte auf der Diskussionsseite angegeben sein. Bitte hilf mit, ihn zu verbessern, und entferne anschließend diese Markierung. Dieser Artikel oder nachfolgende Abschnitt ist nicht hinreichend mit Belegen (beispielsweise Einzelnachweisen) ausgestattet. Angaben ohne ausreichenden Beleg könnten demnächst entfernt werden. Bitte hilf Wikipedia, indem du die Angaben recherchierst und gute Belege einfügst. Staat...
Katedral DarwinGereja Katedral Santa Maria Bintang Samudera di DarwinSt Mary's Star of the Sea Cathedral12°27′33″S 130°50′18″E / 12.459130°S 130.838199°E / -12.459130; 130.838199Koordinat: 12°27′33″S 130°50′18″E / 12.459130°S 130.838199°E / -12.459130; 130.838199LokasiDarwinNegara AustraliaDenominasiGereja Katolik RomaSejarahPendiriFather Tom Jose Pandiapollil CMISpesifikasiLonceng4AdministrasiKeuskupanKeuskupan Darw...
Bilateral relationsJapan–Tonga relations Japan Tonga Japan and Tonga have maintained official diplomatic relations since July 1970.[1] Japan is Tonga's leading donor in the field of technical aid.[1] The Japanese government describes its relations with Tonga as excellent, and states that the Imperial family of Japan and the Royal family of Tonga have developed a cordial and personal relationship over the years.[1] Japan is one of only four countries to have an embass...
Representative of the monarch in Northern Rhodesia This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Governor of Northern Rhodesia – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Governor of Northern RhodesiaFlag of the governor of Northern Rhodesia...
You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in Japanese. (December 2018) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Japanese article. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English W...
Corydoras eques TaxonomíaReino: AnimaliaFilo: ChordataClase: ActinopterygiiSubclase: NeopterygiiInfraclase: TeleosteiSuperorden: OstariophysiOrden: SiluriformesFamilia: CallichthyidaeGénero: CorydorasEspecie: C. eques[editar datos en Wikidata] Corydoras eques es una especie de peces de la familia Callichthyidae en el orden de los Siluriformes. Morfología • Los machos pueden llegar alcanzar los 4,8 cm de longitud total.[1] Distribución geográfica Se encuentr...
Historic house in Georgia, United States United States historic placeFort Hollingsworth–White HouseU.S. National Register of Historic Places Show map of GeorgiaShow map of the United StatesNearest cityAlto, GeorgiaCoordinates34°25′35.16″N 83°32′1.76″W / 34.4264333°N 83.5338222°W / 34.4264333; -83.5338222Built1793NRHP reference No.98000973[1]Added to NRHPAugust 6, 1998 The Fort Hollingsworth–White House is a well-preserved example of an...
University in Saint Petersburg, Russia This article uses bare URLs, which are uninformative and vulnerable to link rot. Please consider converting them to full citations to ensure the article remains verifiable and maintains a consistent citation style. Several templates and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as reFill (documentation) and Citation bot (documentation). (August 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The Herzen State Pedagogical University of R...
Former public high school in Toronto, Ontario, Canada Humbergrove Secondary SchoolAddress1760 Martin Grove RoadToronto, Ontario, M9V 3S4CanadaCoordinates43°44′9″N 79°35′31″W / 43.73583°N 79.59194°W / 43.73583; -79.59194InformationSchool typePublic High schoolVocational High schoolFounded1966StatusLeased outClosed1988School boardToronto District School Board(Etobicoke Board of Education)SuperintendentMary Jane McNamaraArea trusteeMichael FordSchool number917...
Roger Cunliffe, 3rd Baron Cunliffe (born 12 January 1932), is a retired architect and consulting project manager. He specialised in project strategy, particularly for office buildings, museums and exhibition complexes, and for city planning, both in the UK and overseas. He designed various museums and office buildings, and was the job architect of the listed Commonwealth Institute in Holland Park, London. He and his wife now have a small farm and woodlands in Suffolk. The title of baron was g...
2022 film by Adrian Langley BunkerPosterDirected byAdrian LangleyWritten byMichael HuntsmanProduced by James Huntsman Patrick Rizzotti Starring Roger Clark Luke Baines Patrick Moltane Kayla Radomski Julian Feder CinematographyMatthew QuinnEdited byEvan PeaseMusic byAndrew Morgan SmithProductioncompanyBuffalo FilmWorksDistributed byBlue Fox EntertainmentRelease date October 8, 2022 (2022-10-08) (Buffalo International Film Festival) Running time108 minutesCountryUnited States...
NacionalDatos generalesNombre Nacional Atlético Clube S/C Ltda.Apodo(s) NACAlbicelesteGuerrero del NorteFundación 28 de abril de 1947 (76 años)Presidente Jose DanilsonInstalacionesEstadio Estádio Erich GeorgeCapacidad 1,600Ubicación Rolândia, Brasil Titular Alternativo Última temporadaLiga Paranaense Serie Plata(2019) 6º Página web oficial[editar datos en Wikidata] El Nacional Atlético Clube es un equipo de fútbol de Brasil que juega en el Campeonato Paranaense Serie...
For the former electoral district, see St. Henri (electoral district). For the municipality, see Saint-Henri, Chaudière-Appalaches, Quebec. Neighbourhood in Montreal, Quebec, CanadaSaint-HenriNeighbourhoodArt deco 23 fire hall, Saint-HenriSaint-HenriLocation of Saint-Henri in MontrealCoordinates: 45°28′38″N 73°35′11″W / 45.47716°N 73.58651°W / 45.47716; -73.58651CountryCanadaProvinceQuebecCityMontrealBoroughLe Sud-OuestEstablished1685Population (2011)...
American politician (1935–2021) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Albert Bustamante – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Albert BustamanteMember of the U.S. House of Representativesfrom Texas's 23rd dist...
Australia international rugby league footballer Allan LangerLanger in 2009Personal informationFull nameAllan Jeffrey LangerBorn (1966-07-30) 30 July 1966 (age 57)Ipswich, Queensland, AustraliaPlaying informationHeight165 cm (5 ft 5 in)Weight76 kg (12 st 0 lb; 168 lb)PositionHalfback Club Years Team Pld T G FG P 1986–87 Ipswich Jets 25 6 4 1 33 1988–99 Brisbane Broncos 240 95 8 6 402 2000–01 Warrington Wolves 55 16 4 0 72 2002 Brisbane Broncos...
_(cropped2).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpeg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_enhanced_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png){kind=spacer}
.png){kind=spacer}
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.JPG)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_01_(cropped).jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png){kind=spacer}
.png){kind=spacer}
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.png){kind=spacer}
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
.png)
.png){kind=spacer}
.jpg){kind=small}
.JPG)
.png){kind=spacer}
.jpg)
.JPG)
.jpg)
.png)
.jpg){kind=small}
.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).JPG)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png){kind=spacer}
.png){kind=small}
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
.png){kind=spacer}
_(2).png)
.png){kind=small}
.png)
.jpg){kind=small}
.png){kind=spacer}
.png)
.png){kind=small}
.jpg){kind=small}
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png){kind=small}
.png)
.png){kind=small}
.png)
.jpg){kind=small}
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg){kind=small}
_(cropped).JPG)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).png)
.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.jpg)
_(cropped).png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.jpg)
.png)
.png)
.jpg)
_(cropped).jpg)
