Different dosage forms of iron preparation have different absorption mechanisms. Iron in oral iron preparations is absorbed in the gut via transporters and carrier proteins and released to the bloodstream.[3] Iron in parenteral iron preparation needs to be released by the cleavage of the surrounding complex by macrophages.[4] After reaching the bloodstream, it becomes a part of the endogenous iron pool and establishes normal human iron distribution, metabolism, and elimination.[5]
Iron supplements encourage erythropoiesis to increase red blood cell (RBC) production and oxygen transportation in the circulating system. The transportation of non-heme iron across the apical membrane is through divalent metal transporter 1(DMT1) while that of heme iron is through heme carrier protein 1(HCP1) in the small intestine. Iron is then incorporated and stored as ferritin in macrophages, increasing the iron stock in the body. Ferritin is then converted into an absorbable form of Fe2+ to bind to transferrin - an iron transporter in the blood circulation. The raised in transferrin level carried to the bone marrow cells stimulates RBC production, facilitating oxygen transportation in the bloodstream.[2]
For heme iron, heme oxygenase catalyzes the release of Fe2+ from heme, and Fe2+ enters the enterocyte cytosolic iron pool. However, the uptake mechanism is not well-understood. Haem carrier protein 1(HCP1) has been suggested to transport heme iron into the enterocyte, but has later been proven to have a much higher affinity in the transportation of folate.[11][12] The absorption of heme iron is 2–3 times faster than non-heme iron.[13]
After absorption, the iron from preparation becomes part of the iron pool in the body. Upon stimulation, the reduction of iron storage Fe3+ in the enterocyte to Fe2+ ferroportin allows the passage of iron through the cell membrane for export. In the blood, ferroportin is then converted to transferrin to reach other tissues.[14]
The gastrointestinal (GI) absorption process depends on many factors, including the dosage form, dose, endogenous erythropoiesis process and diet. The most significant factor regulating iron uptake is the amount of iron present in the body. Iron absorption increases with sufficient iron storage and vice versa. Increased erythrocyte synthesis also stimulates iron absorption in the gut.[15] Therefore, oral bioavailability of iron varies greatly, ranging from less than 1% to greater than 50%.[16] Uptake of iron can be enhanced by dietary heme iron and vitamin C, while inhibited by calcium, polyphenols, tannins and phytates.[13]
Parenteral administration
Intravenous iron is administered directly to the bloodstream, in a form of iron carbohydrate complexes, such as iron dextran and iron sucrose. The complex is composed of a polynuclear Fe3+ hydroxide core with a surrounding carbohydrate shell.[4] In the body, the iron complex behaves like a prodrug, releasing the iron from the Fe3+ hydroxide core via metabolism.
Iron obtained from iron preparation is eliminated from the body in a similar manner as dietary iron. Iron is mostly conserved and recycled in the body with minimal loss.[18] A very limited loss is estimated to be approximately 1 mg/day,[19] mainly by sweating and epithelial cell exfoliation on the skin, genitourinary tract, and gastrointestinal tract. For women, menstrual bleeding is another route for iron loss.[18]
Iron toxicity and treatment
As a strong catalyst, iron is responsible for conversion of reduced forms of O2 into harmful hydroxyl radicals in the body. Excessive amount of iron leads to production of high dose of reactive oxygen species (ROS). High doses of ROS are cytotoxic and can lead to chronic and acute inflammatory conditions.[20] Therefore, regulation of iron level with iron-binding proteins is essential such as transferrin for the transport and import of iron into cells, and ferritin for iron storage. These iron regulatory proteins prevent the accumulation of toxic cytosolic iron, maintaining a balance between uptake and storage of cellular iron.[15]
During iron overdose, the protective mechanism is insufficient to limit the cytosolic iron concentration. The massive iron loading fails to match the capacity of ferritin for storage.[15] The high concentration of iron emerges into the bloodstream as toxic non-transferrin-bound plasma iron(NTBI). In the worst case, high cellular iron concentration accelerates non-transferrin iron uptake, leading to accumulation of NTBI .[21]
NTBI is cytotoxic due to its ability to promote the formation of free hydroxyl radicals, one type of ROS[22] Such damage results in swelling and lysis of mitochondria. Iron-loaded cells deplete mitochondrial ATP content and die eventually .[7]
Other than the mechanism of toxicity, four clinical stages of iron toxicity has been classified [4][9]
The first stage is the initial stage of excess iron in intestinal system and circulation. High iron concentration causes hemorrhagic necrosis and ulceration of the upper intestine, leading to breakage of intestinal mucosal barrier and blood loss. Moreover, development of NTBI leads to circulatory collapse and reduced consciousness.
The second stage is relatively stable, with improved consciousness. The decrease in plasma iron level due to cellular uptake creates a false sense of security.
The third stage is the most dangerous phase due to intracellular iron toxicity. Iron catalyzes the mitochondrial inner membrane, resulting in peroxidative damage and upset of oxidative phosphorylation. ATP synthesis is hampered, leading to cellular dysfunction, and even death. Hypotension develops again 2 to 5 days after iron ingestion, in association with severe organ dysfunction involving mainly the liver, heart, and brain. Sudden onset of severe hepatic failure, with hypoglycemia, coagulopathy, and aggravated metabolic acidosis are likely to occur, causing fatal outcome.
The fourth stage is rarely seen as limited cases of iron poisoning can survive the third stage. Patients surviving stage 3 are likely to develop intestinal strictures or obstruction due to scarring.
Treatment of iron overdose includes gastrointestinal (GI) decontamination, chelation and supportive care. Whole-bowel irrigation can be performed with large amounts of an osmotically balanced polyethylene glycol electrolyte solution to flush out excess iron in the GI tract. In serious cases, iron chelation may be needed by intravenous injection, like deferoxamine. It binds iron and other metal ions with the chelator and is eliminated through the urine. Supportive care may also be necessary for patients with breathing difficulty and GI upset, by offering mechanical ventilation and rehydration respectively .[10]
Iron sucrose is used for patients with iron-deficiencyanemia, including those with chronic kidney disease, when oral iron therapy is ineffective or impractical. Iron sucrose is given by slow intravenous injection or intravenous infusion. For haemodialysis patients, it may be given into the venous limb of the dialyser.[28]
Iron dextran is given by injection and should be used only in the treatment of proven iron-deficiencyanemia where oral therapy is ineffective or impracticable.[30]
Haem iron polypeptide is available in oral and parenteral dosage form. Oral formulation is used in both prophylaxis and treatment of iron-deficiencyanemia.[32]
^ abcdeDanielson, Bo G. (December 2004). "Structure, chemistry, and pharmacokinetics of intravenous iron agents". Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 15 (Suppl 2): S93–98. doi:10.1097/01.ASN.0000143814.49713.C5 (inactive 31 January 2024). PMID15585603.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2024 (link)
^ abMann, K. V.; Picciotti, M. A.; Spevack, T. A.; Durbin, D. R. (June 1989). "Management of acute iron overdose". Clinical Pharmacy. 8 (6): 428–440. PMID2663331.
^Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) (16 January 1998). "Human rabies--Texas and New Jersey, 1997". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 47 (1): 1–5. PMID9450721.
^Gutteridge, J. M. C.; Rowley, D. A.; Griffiths, E.; Halliwell, B. (1985). "Low-molecular-weight iron complexes and oxygen radical reactions in idiopathic haemochromatosis". Clinical Science. 68 (4): 463–467. doi:10.1042/cs0680463. PMID2578915.
^“Ferrous Sulfate” Martindale: the Complete Drug Reference, by Sean C. Sweetman, Pharmaceutical Press, 2020.