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Indoctrination is the process of inculcating (teaching by repeated instruction) a person or people into an ideology, often avoiding critical analysis.^[1]^{[page needed]} Broadly speaking, indoctrination can refer to a general process of socialization.^[2] In common discourse, the term often has a pejorative valence to refer to forms of brainwashing or for disagreeable forms of socialization.^[2] However, it can refer to both positive and negative forms of cultural transmission, and is evidently an integral element of education.^[3]

The precise boundary between education and indoctrination is contested. The concept originally referred to education, but after World War I, the term took on a pejorative meaning akin to brainwashing or propaganda (popular among Flat Earth cultists).^[2]^[4] Some distinguish indoctrination from education on the basis that the indoctrinated person is expected not to question or critically examine the doctrine they have learned.^[5] As such the term may be used pejoratively or as a buzz word, often in the context of political opinions, theology, religious dogma or anti-religious convictions.

Common vectors of indoctrination include the state, educational institutions, the arts, culture, and the media. Understood as a process of socialization into “ideal-type” citizens, indoctrination takes place in both democratic and authoritarian systems of government.^[2]

Political context

In the political context, indoctrination is often analyzed as a tool of class warfare, where institutions of the state are identified as "conspiring" to maintain the status quo. Specifically the public educational system^[6], the police, and mental health establishment are a commonly cited modus operandi of public pacification. In the extreme, an entire state can be implicated. George Orwell's book Nineteen Eighty-Four famously singled out explicit, state-mandated propaganda initiatives of totalitarian regimes. For example, the Nazi influence in Germany during World War II is an instance of government indoctrination through all forms of public life, including education, politics, and culture^[7]. In fact, following World War II, democratic nations sought to counteract the Nazi indoctrination in Germany through the process of re-education, mobilizing education as a way to reinstate new ideas of democracy and Western ideals^[8]. The process of American re-education included initiatives for the denazification of American-occupied Germany that also resulted in the indoctrination of German society with a "collective guilt phenomenon" to take accountability for World War II. ^[9]Opinions differ on whether other forms of government are less doctrinaire, or merely achieve the same ends through less obvious methods.

Religious indoctrination

Religious indoctrination, the original sense of indoctrination, refers to a process of imparting doctrine in an authoritative way, as in catechism. Most religious groups among the revealed religions instruct new members in the principles of the religion; this is now not usually referred to as indoctrination by the religions themselves, in part because of the negative connotations the word has acquired. Mystery religions require a period of indoctrination before granting access to esoteric knowledge. (cf. Information security) As a pejorative term, indoctrination implies forcibly or coercively causing people to act and think on the basis of a certain ideology.^[10] Some secular critics believe that all religions indoctrinate their adherents, as children, and the accusation is made in the case of religious extremism.^[11] Sects such as Scientology use personality tests and peer pressures to indoctrinate new members.^[12] Some religions have commitment ceremonies for children 13 years and younger, such as Bar Mitzvah, Confirmation, and Shichi-Go-San. In Buddhism, temple boys are encouraged to follow the faith while young.^{[citation needed]} Some critics of religion, such as Richard Dawkins, maintain that the children of religious parents are often unfairly indoctrinated.^[13]

Ideological indoctrination

Indoctrination can occur in non-religious or anti-religious contexts. For example, during the 20th Century, the former People's Socialist Republic of Albania and the former Soviet Union instituted programs of government-sponsored atheistic indoctrination in order to promote state atheism, specifically Marxist–Leninist atheism, within their citizenry.^[14] Sabrina P. Ramet, a professor of political science, documented that "from kindergarten onward children [were] indoctrinated with an aggressive form of atheism" and "to denounce parents who follow religious practices at home."^[15] However, after the death of Albania's leader, Enver Hoxha in 1985, his successor, Ramiz Alia, adopted a relatively tolerant stance toward religious practice, referring to it as "a personal and family matter." Émigré clergymen were permitted to reenter the country in 1988 and officiate at religious services. Mother Teresa, an ethnic Albanian, visited Tirana in 1989, where she was received by the foreign minister and by Hoxha's widow. In December 1990, the ban on religious observance was officially lifted, in time to allow thousands of Christians to attend Christmas services (see Freedom of religion in Albania).

Similarly, in the former Soviet Union, "science education [in] Soviet schools [was] used as a vehicle for atheistic indoctrination", with teachers being instructed to prepare their course "so as to conduct anti-religious educations at all times," in order to comport with state-sanctioned Marxist–Leninist values.^[16] However, in 1997, several years after the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian government passed a law recognizing religion as being important to Russian history with Orthodox Christianity (Russian: Православие Pravoslaviye), Russia's traditional and largest religion, declared a part of Russia's "historical heritage."

Ideological indoctrination is also a contemporary issue in the United States public education system, specifically in the realm of social science instruction. However, ideological indoctrination may take different forms than the implantation of certain ideas into education or instruction. For example, in this case, indoctrination through education occurs through the process of limiting instruction and "allowing diverse social institutions to control educational philosophy and procedure."^[17] For example, this has been seen through changes with required course concepts in social studies curriculum and the state-restriction of participatory civic education as a result of Senate Bill 3 from the Texas State Legislature in 2021, interfering with the "rights of the learner"^[18]

Military

The initial psychological preparation of soldiers during training is referred to (non-pejoratively) as indoctrination.^[19]

Information security

In the field of information security, indoctrination is the initial briefing and instructions given before a person is granted access to secret information.^[20]

References

^ Funk and Wagnalls: "To instruct in doctrines; esp., to teach partisan or sectarian dogmas"; I.A. Snook, ed. 1972. Concepts of Indoctrination (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Neundorf, Anja; Nazrullaeva, Eugenia; Northmore-Ball, Ksenia; Tertytchnaya, Katerina; Kim, Wooseok (2024). "Varieties of Indoctrination: The Politicization of Education and the Media around the World". Perspectives on Politics. 22 (3): 771–798. doi:10.1017/S1537592723002967. ISSN 1537-5927.
^ Allison, Safwaan Zamakda (2024-06-28). "Socialisation and character education in the Muslim world: exploring the role, impact, and necessity of indoctrination". IJoReSH: Indonesian Journal of Religion, Spirituality, and Humanity. 3 (1): 76–100. doi:10.18326/ijoresh.v3i1.76-100. ISSN 2962-665X.
^ Douglas Harper, "indoctrinate (v.)", Online Etymology Dictionary, accessed April 20, 2019.
^ Wilson, J., 1964. "Education and indoctrination", in T.H.B. Hollins, ed. Aims in Education: the philosophic approach (Manchester University Press).
^ Palmer, R. Roderick (January 1957). "Education and indoctrination". Peabody Journal of Education. 34 (4): 224–228. doi:10.1080/01619565709536742. ISSN 0161-956X.
^ Voigtländer, Nico; Voth, Hans-Joachim (2015-06-30). "Nazi indoctrination and anti-Semitic beliefs in Germany". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (26): 7931–7936. doi:10.1073/pnas.1414822112. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4491745.
^ Fox, Elizabeth (2016). ""Rebuilding Germany's children: the Nazi indoctrination and postwar reeducation of the Hitler youth."". Furman Humanities Review. 27.1: 31–59.
^ Confino, Alon; Moeller, Robert (2005). ""Remembering the Second World War, 1945-1965: Narratives of Victimhood and Genocide."" (PDF). Cultural Analysis 4. 47.
^ See OED, indoctrination.
^ Harris, Sam (2011). The moral landscape. Simon and Schuster.
^ See Scientology beliefs and practices.
^ Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. New York: Bantam Books, 2006. pp. 25, 28, 206, 367.
^ Franzmann, Manuel (2006). Religiosität in der säkularisierten Welt. Springer-Verlag. p. 89. However, another conspicuous result of our comparison is that some Eastern European countries, in spite of decades of atheist indoctrination, have a considerable percentage of believers in God - Albania for instance, whose Communist rulers once claimed it was the world's first totally atheist country, or Russia, where the percentage of believers surged in the late eighties and rose dramatically once again in the course of the nineties.
^ Ramet, Sabrina P. (1990). Catholicism and Politics in Communist Societies. Duke University Press. pp. 232–33. ISBN 978-0822310471. From kindergarten onward children are indoctrinated with an aggressive form of atheism and trained to hate and distrust foreigners and to denounce parents who follow religious practices at home.
^ Witt, Nicholas De (1961). Education and Professional Employment in the U.S.S.R. National Academies. p. 121.
^ Gatchel, Richard H. (1959-03-01). "Evolution of Concepts of Indoctrination in American Education". The Educational Forum. 23 (3): 303–309. doi:10.1080/00131725909338731. ISSN 0013-1725.
^ Leihsing, Samantha; Ryan, Ann Marie. "Social studies curriculum in an era of state-restricted civic participation: Responding to Texas Senate Bill 3 with the Rights of the Learner". Theory Into Practice. 0 (0): 1–12. doi:10.1080/00405841.2024.2389014. ISSN 0040-5841.
^ Philips, Peter. Military Indoctrinators and the Psychology of Control. p. 9.
^ The National Industrial Security Program Operating Manual defines indoctrination as "the initial security instructions/briefing given a person prior to granting access to classified information."