At first, Hammad built a fortified city that would serve as the capital for his newly declared kingdom.[5]: 40 [3]: 234 [6]: 20 [11]Later, upon the arrival of the Arabic Banu Hilal tribes, the capital would be replaced by another newly built city by Emir Al Nasir ibn Alnas called Al-Nāsiriyyah (from Arabic: الناصرية) and later renamed to Bejaia,[12]: 100 [7]: 45 [13][14] it would serve as the official capital of the Emirate by 1090 during the rule of Al-Mansur.[7]: 46 Both cities would grow to become one of the largest and most prosperous centers of the Maghreb,[14] with Bejaia housing more than 100,000 inhabitants.[13]: 59 [14][11] The Hammadids would subsequently clash with the Almoravids in the west and their cousins the Zirids in the east.[15][8]: 54 [6]: 80 The latter weakened with the rise of the prominent Normans in Sicily,[7]: 47 [11][16] who also confronted the Hammadids for the domination of Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia).[12]: 188 [6]: 98 [3]: 260 However, the Hammadids would face another challenge on their western borders with the growing force of the Almohad Caliphate,[7]: 47 and their emirate would finally be annexed by the Almohads in 1152 after a brief clash with them.[7]: 47 [11][8]: 58
In 1014, Hammad declared his independence from Zirid suzerainty and switched his spiritual allegiance from the Shi'aFatimid caliphs to the SunniAbbasid caliphs of Baghdad. The Zirids failed to quash the rebellion and recognized Hammadid legitimacy in 1017, in a peace with al-Mu'izz that was sealed by Hammad's son and successor, Qaid ibn Hammad (r. 1028–1054).[11] The peace was further sealed by marriage, with al-Mu'izz's sister marrying one of Hammad's sons.[17][9] According to historian Hady Roger Idris, it appears that the Hammadids agreed to recognize Fatimid suzerainty again at this time, but at some later point in his reign, perhaps around the same time as the Zirids did in the 1040s, Qa'id ibn Hammad repudiated Fatimid suzerainty again.[9]
In 1039, Qaid ibn Hammad was attacked by Hammama, the ruler of Fes, but Hammama soon returned to Fez, requested peace, and declared his submission to the Hammadids.[18]
Al-Mu'izz subsequently also broke with the Fatimids and changed his allegiance to the Abbasids. The Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir, sent Bedouin Arab allies, the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym, into a mass migration and invasion of the lands in present-day Libya, Tunisia, and Algeria, culminating in al-Mu'izz's defeat in 1053 and the subsequent reduction of the Zirids to a small, insignificant territory based in Mahdia.[11] Amidst the chaos, the Hammadids reverted their allegiance to the Fatimids and managed to negotiate an alliance with the Bedouin tribes.[11][9]
Although the Hammadids and Zirids entered into an agreement in 1077 in which Zirid ruler Tamim's daughter married into the Hammadids, this did not end the rivalry between the dynasties.[19] A common pattern was for Hammadids and Zirids to support "rival coalitions of Arab tribes to fight their proxy wars."[20] The Hammidid–Zirid rivalry also influenced the choice of which caliph to recognize; historian Amar S. Baadj writes, "It would appear that the principle which the Hammadids followed in the course of their relations with Baghdad and Cairo was that of opposing the Zirids. Whenever the Zirids recognized one of two rival caliphs, the Hammadids would declare their submission to the other."[21]
Apogee
Buluggin ibn Muhammad (r. 1055–1062), a subsequent Hammadid ruler, invaded northern Morocco in 1062 and briefly took Fez for a few months before being assassinated by his paternal cousin, An-Nasir ibn Alnas, who succeeded him as emir.[22][9] The Hammadid dynasty peaked during al-Nasir's reign.[23][11] Under his reign the Hammadids established their control across large parts of the Maghreb. Al-Nasir captured Constantine and Algiers, then established Hammadid influence far to the east in Sfax, where the local ruler acknowledged Hammadid suzerainty, as well as in Susa and Tripoli.[9][10][24] At the request of local shaykhs, he was also able to install a loyal governor in Tunis until 1067.[25][9] Between 1067 and 1072 he built Béjaïa, developing it from a small fishing village into a large, fortified town and port.[24][11] The Hammadids also expanded south deep into the Sahara, with Ouargla forming the southernmost city of their territory.[10][22][24] They briefly extended their authority further to the Oued Mya.[26][27]
In the 11th century, the Hammadids came under increasing pressure from the Banu Hilal, who had settled in the Plains of Constantine and increasingly threatened Qal'at Bani Hammad.[11] While initially allied to the Bedouins, the Hammadids later became their puppets, allocating half of their harvest yields to them and buying off tribesmen in order to secure the safety of trade routes. Over time, Qal'at Bani Hammad was eventually eclipsed by Béjaïa.[11] In 1090, with the Banu Hilal menace rising, the Hammadids moved their capital to Béjaïa, yielding their southern territories to the Hilalians. The Hammadids maintained control of a small but prosperous coastal territory between Ténès and El Kala.[11]E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam (1927) states that the Qal'at Bani Hammad "was not completely abandoned by al-Mansur and he even embellished it with a number of palaces. The Hammadid kingdom had therefore at this point two capitals joined by a royal road."[28] Renamed al-Nasiriya to honor the emir, Béjaïa developed into a sophisticated trading city; under al-Nasir and his son and successor al-Mansur ibn Nasir, large gardens, palaces, a Great Mosque, and other landmarks were constructed in the town.[11]
An-Nasir corresponded with Pope Gregory VII and expanded commercial opportunities for Italian traders in Béjaïa. The city since flourished as a trading port and a prominent intellectual centre where even Abu Madyan and the Andalusian Shaykh Abu Ali Hassan bin Ali Muhammad taught.[24]Leonardo Fibonacci had also studied in Béjaïa, his father was appointed as collector of customs in Béjaïaand he brought Leonardo along with him where he was taught.[29] It was in Béjaïa where Fibonacci was introduced to the Arabic numerical system and computational method, he later introduced this numerical system to Europe.[30][31] He was also introduced to a book of algebra written by al-Khwarizmi.
Decline
In 1103–1104 the Hammadids defeated the Almoravids and took control of Tlemcen.[15] During the reign of al-Mansur's son Abd al-Aziz ibn Mansur (r. 1105–1121), Béjaïa had about 100,000 people, and the Hammadids consolidated their power in the city. The dynasty suffered a decline after this point; efforts to develop more sea power in the Mediterranean were foiled by the Normans, who by the 12th century had conquered Sicily and had also occupied a number of settlements on the coast of Tunisia and Algeria. However, Abd al-Aziz did expel the Hilalians from Hodna and capture Jerba.[11]
The last dynastic emir was Yahya ibn Abd al-Aziz (r. 1121–1152). Yahya repulsed Bedouin incursions and subdued uprisings by Berber clans, but during his reign the Genoese also raided Béjaïa (1136) and the Kingdom of Sicily occupied the settlement of Djidjelli and destroyed a pleasure palace that had been built there.[11] Tunis, whose Khurasanid rulers had previously vacillated between recognizing Zirid and Hammadid authority, was annexed in 1128 and controlled by Hammadid governors until 1148.[32]
Yahya tried to establish good relations with the Fatimids in the early 1140s, but ultimately he recognized the Abbasids instead and minted coins in al-Muqtafi's name.[9] In 1144 and 1145, he dispatched Hammadid forces to join the Almoravids in fighting the Berber Almohads led by Abd al-Mu'min, though the latter emerged victorious.[11]
In 1145, Abd al-Mu'min conquered Tlemcen and Oran. In 1151, he marched against the Hammadids. The Almohads took Algiers in 1152 and then captured Béjaïa later the same year, crushing Hammadid forces at the gates of the city.[11] This marked a major military triumph for Abd al-Mu'min.[33] Yahya fled to Constantine but surrendered several months later.[23] He died in comfortable exile in Salé, Morocco, in 1163.[11][23] Abd al-Mu'min enslaved the women and children of Hammadid loyalists who had fought against him, but did not sack Béjaïa because the city had willingly surrendered.[33]
Some 30 years after the collapse of the Hammadids, the dynasty had a brief revival in 1184, when 'Ali ibn Ghaniya—a member of the Banu Ghaniya branch of the Almoravid dynasty, which had established a corsair kingdom in the Balearic Islands—seized control of Béjaïa, recruited a mixed force of "dispossessed Hammadids, Sanhaja Berbers, and Hilalian tribes" opposed to Almohad rule, and quickly captured Algiers, Miliana, Ashir, and al Qal'a, with the goal of establishing a new Almoravid polity in the Maghreb.[11] Less than a year later, the Almohad had recaptured all the towns.[11] The Banu Ghaniya did retain, through the end of the Almohad period, some influence in Tripolitania, southern Tunisia, and the Algerian plains, where Hammadid loyalists numbered among their allies.[11]
Territories
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The Hammadid domain stretched across the entirety of the Central Maghreb, comprising the northern expanse of contemporary Algeria. At its establishment during Hammad's reign, a pact was forged with his cousin Badis, stipulating that Hammad would retain authority over a substantial swath of the Central Maghreb (Algeria). This encompassed pivotal cities such as M'sila, Achir, and Tahert, alongside the territories of Tobna and Zab, as well as any lands annexed through his conquests.[34] The kingdom's territories would quickly expand. Following Hammad's death, his son Sultan El Qaid ascended to power, and in 1038, a war erupted against the ruler of Fes. The latter swiftly backtracked and declared submission to the Hammadids.[6]: 41 [3]: 234 Under the reign of Sultan Buluggin ibn Muhammad, campaigns were conducted in the west to subdue the Zenata tribes.[6]: 55 He defeated the Zenata and entered Tlemcen in 1058.[35][36]
At the same time, the governor of Biskra revolted against the Hammadids, but the rebellion was swiftly suppressed, and the governor of Biskra was replaced.[4]: 913 [6]: 56 In 1062, Bologhine learned that the Almoravids had seized control of the Maghreb Al Aqsa (Morocco) and launched a campaign into Morocco, pushing back the Almoravids into the desert.[4]: 353 [6]: 56 He was assassinated by his successor on his return journey near Tessala.[4]: 353
It was under the reign of Al Nacer (1062-1089) that the kingdom experienced the peak of its territorial expansion.[37] The influence of the Hammadids extended into Ifriqiya (Tunisia),[6]: 60 as the governors of Sfax and Tunis, to whom governance was entrusted to the Banu Khurasan,[38] submitted to Al Nacer.[4]: 354 [4]: 334 The people of Castilia (Tozeur) were notably brought under Hammadid rule.[4]: 354 Shortly after the submission of these cities, Sultan Al Nacer conquered the city of Laribus near Kef in 1066 before entering Qayrawan,[6]: 69 [3]: 235 [39] although the latter quickly emancipated itself from Hammadid influence. The cities of Sousse and Tripoli also submitted to Al Nacer.[9][10] He also conducted a southern expedition, during which he expelled the Ibadi from Sedrata and ended a revolt in Ouargla by replacing its governor.[8] His successor Al Mansur would later combat the Almoravids in the west,[40] who continued to raid Hammadid territories. He gathered over 20,000 fighters and marched on Tlemcen,[6]: 77 which, after a victorious battle against the armies of Ibn Tachufin,[6]: 77 resulted in an agreement where the boundary between the two kingdoms was set at Tlemcen. In the eastern part of the kingdom, a rebellion broke out but was swiftly quelled by Al Mansour, who managed to recapture Bone from the rebels.[4]: 358 [6]: 75 Few territorial changes occurred after the death of Sultan Al Mansour, notable among them being the capture of the island of Djerba by the Hammadid fleet under the reign of Abd Al Aziz,[4]: 362 [3]: 235 as well as the reintegration of the Banu Khurasan of Tunis into the Hammadid kingdom.[4]: 362 During the rule of the final monarch, Yahya, in the eastern regions, according to the author of Sahib Al Majam (from Arabic: صاحب المعجم), the lands of the Hammadid Sultan Yahya extended to the plains of Sig near Oran, marking the boundary between the Hammadids and the Almoravids.[3]
Administration
The governmental structure represented an islamicabsolute monarchy,[3]: 236 [41] where the Head of the State held the title of Emir or Sultan[3]: 236 and the governance of the emirate was exclusively within the Hammadid dynasty,[12] they did recognize the spiritual authority of both the fatimid Caliphate at first until the arrival of the Banu Hilal tribes and then the Abbasid Caliphate in different time period.[3]: 236 [5]: 183 The Qada (from Arabic: القضاء) or Jurisdiction was separated from the administration and derived its rulings and legislative texts from the Maliki school of thought, which was prevalent among the people of the Maghreb and Al-Andalus.[3]: 237 Arabic was the official language in the Jurisdiction.[42] And each city had a judge appointed by the Hammadid Emirs who was responsible for the affairs of Muslims,[12]: 208 including complaints and others.[42]: 109
Initially, the Hammadid emirs personally oversaw the administration of the emirate, later delegating this responsibility to viziers based in the capital.[3]: 236 Most of these viziers were not from the Hammadid dynasty.[12]: 206 [5]: 186 They were given various tasks that included suppressing rebellions such as the Biskra rebellion during Bouloughin's reign and handling diplomatic correspondence with other kingdoms, particularly during Emir El Nacer's time.[6]: 122 They were also tasked with managing both internal and external affairs.[12]: 206 The Banu Hamdoune (from Arabic: بنو حمدون) family wielded significant influence in the kingdom since Emir Badis' reign.[6]: 96 Among them, Mimoun ibn Hamdoune served as vizier during the tenure of the last Hammadid Emir Yahya, whose authority grew as the Emir focused on hunting and entertainment.[6]: 122 The Hammadid central administration included the Diwan al-Insha (from Arabic: ديوان الإنشاء), headed by a secretary,[6]: 122 whose importance lies in drafting treaties and agreements.[43] Next to the Diwan al-Insha, the Hammadids had the Diwan al-Bareed (from Arabic: ديوان البريد), as the emir needed to correspond with other sultans, kings, and caliphs.[44] The communication system was advanced during the era of the emirate, and mountain fire signals became built in a wise manner,[12]: 210 as reflective mirrors were installed in lighthouses to reflect lights and throw them far away.[6]: 124 Thus, the nearby centers received their signals, and all centers transmitted them accordingly. They could have also used carrier pigeons like the Zirids.[6]: 123
Regarding the administration of the kingdom's territories, most Umal (from Arabic: عمالUmal) (governors) were from the royal family, with their number fluctuating depending on the Sultan.[6]: 123 Each city had its governor appointed by the Hammadid Sultan. Cities like Algiers, Bône, Constantine, Hamza, Achir, and Jijel each had an assigned governor.[3]: 236 At its peak under the reign of Al Nacer, the Sultan appointed his brother Kbab to govern the western territories, who was installed in Miliana.[6]: 124 He also tasked the Banu Wemanou, a Zenata tribe located near Relizane, with overseeing the western territories of the kingdom.[45] His second brother Ruman was assigned the governorship of Hamza (Bouira). The city of Constantine was given to his third brother Balbar, and N'Gaous to his fourth brother Khazar.[6]: 124 [34]: 622 He also entrusted his son Ibn el Alaa with the governance of Algiers and Mers el Dejaj while his other son Yusuf with that of Achir.[6]: 124 [34]: 622 Alongside these provinces, there were regions within the kingdom whose governance was assigned to other emirs, such as the region of Tozeur, which was given by Al Nacer to Yusuf ibn Makhluf.[6]: 124 During this period, Tunis was under the governance of the Banu Khurasan,[6]: 124 and Biskra under the Banu Ruman and later the Banu Sindi, both subject to Sultan Al Nacer.[3]: 240 The city of Sfax was assigned to Hammu Ibn Malil.[34]: 624 Al Nacer also had a governor in Ouargla whose name is not known.[34]: 622 [6]: 124
Qal'at Beni Hammad, the dynasty's capital, was described by Al-Bakri in the 11th century as a large and powerful military stronghold and a centre of commerce that attracted caravans from all over the Maghreb, Iraq, Syria, Egypt and the Hejaz.[46] 14th-century Arab historian and philosopher Ibn Khaldun noted that the abundance of travellers was due to the wealth of resources offered to those interested in sciences, commerce and arts. The Qal'at attracted poets, sages and theologians. It was filled with various richly decorated palaces, caravanserai, gardens and what was to be the largest mosque built in North Africa prior to the twentieth century.[47] The art and architecture of the Hammadids influenced that of the Arabs, Almohads, Almoravids and Normans.[48][49][50][51]
Hammadid emirs constructed five palaces, most of which are now destroyed. The keep of the Palace of the Fanal (Qasr al-Manar), however, survives to this day.[11] A minaret, 82 feet (25 m) in height, is the only remaining part of the ruined Great Mosque; the structure bears some resemblance to Seville's Giralda.[11] The Hammadid mosque is said to have been the largest mosque constructed in North Africa prior to the twentieth century and it features the typical Maghreb style square minaret.[52] Architecture in Qal'at Bani Hammad featured adornments of "porcelainmosaics of many-colored faience, sculpted panels and plaster, enameled terra-cottastalactites; building and pottery ornamentation consisted of geometric designs and stylized floral motifs."[11]
Ibn Hamdis wrote two different poems describing one of the Hammadid palaces which he described having interior courts of marble that looked as if they had been carpeted with crystal and he observed that the grounds looked as if they were strewn with fine pearls.[51] His description mentions that the palace had a pool that was bordered by marble lions with water streaming from their mouths, these lions were likely similar to that of the Alhambra.[51]
In the Qal'at Beni Hammad fragments of stucco were discovered from the Qasr al-Salam and the Qasr al-Manar which may be the oldest fragments of muqarnas in the Western Islamic world, dating back to the 11th or 12th century.[50][53]: 133 According to Lucien Golvin the fragments of the muqarnas semi-dome at the Qasr al-Salam are the oldest documented remains of a true muqarnas vault in the Islamic world.[54] However, other scholars of Islamic architecture have questioned or rejected the dating of these fragments or their identification as true muqarnas.[55][50][56]: 93
Furthermore, the Qal'at buildings are considered to be documented antecedents and precursors to certain developments in Western Islamic art in the 12th century.[50] Plaster capitals that were found at the Qal'at were composed of smooth leaves recurved in their upper part are considered to be an antecedent to the common Almoravid and Almohad forms which are seen in the Great Mosque of Tlemcen or in Tinmel.[50] The framework of a marble basin and a grey marble fragment document the use of multifoil arches with spiral-form impost decoration. The use of this motif at the Qal'at subsequently spread during the times of the Almoravids and became universal in Almohad buildings.[50] The square rooms surrounded by rampant barrel vaults in the Qasr al-Manar have been compared to the Almohad minarets and the Torre Pisana in Palermo which it predates. The Hammadid palaces are also noted to contain the first or one of the first documented use of shadirwan.[57]
Art
The excavations in the Qal'at Beni Hammad also discovered the first reference corpus of Islamic ceramics.[52][verification needed] The production of ceramics in Al-Andalus during the taifa and Almoravid periods reflect a strong and direct Hammadid influence.[51] The technique of luster-painting on pottery was passed from al Qal-at to Béjaïa to Malaga and black painted and incised earthenware objects as well as bronze sculptures from the Zirids most likely influenced similar objects in Andalusia.[51] Ceramic architectural decorations had never played such a large role in the Islamic world up until the Hammadids and from there it subsequently spread to Al-Andalus and Morocco where it became a hallmark for the architecture of these countries and it also spread throughout Europe.[58]
Luster-painted and glazed ceramic decoration in a wide variety of shapes and forms were a feature in the Islamic architecture of Hammadid-era Béjaïa.[59] Al-Nasir reputedly negotiated with Pope Gregory VII for the services of Italian masons and other skilled craftsmen for the construction of Béjaïa.[11] Although Béjaïa is mostly in ruins, a large sea gate reportedly survives.[60] The Bab al-Bahr (gate of the sea) was built during an-Nasirs reign along with five other gates with the purpose of protecting the town. It is now a ruin consisted of a pointed arch constructed with solid bricks.[61] The Bab al-Bunud was also built in Béjaïa during an-Nasirs reign with hexagonal towers and its two ogival-arch gates.[62]
In Béjaïa drawings of a facade of two palaces with ground plans by one of the Hammadids have been preserved and provide an insight into palatial architecture of the time period of the Hammadids. The first palace consisted of a huge domed hall flanked by smaller domed towers and chambers while the second palace called al-Kukab which was said to have been located where the present day Bordj Moussa is currently situated. al-Kukab consisted of a large centred hall with a gabled roof flanked by side aisles and two small towers.[63]
The following is a list of Hammadid rulers, starting at Hammadid independence from the Zirids in 1015 and ending with the Almohad conquest in 1152:[64]
^Georges Marcais, "Al-Mansur, the sixth ruler of the Hammadid dynasty" in E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913-1936, Vol. 5 (ed. M. Th. Houtsma et al.) (Brill 1927: reprint ed. 1993), p. 250.
^ abHeather J. Empey, "The Mothers of the Caliph's Sons: Women as Spoils of War During the Early Almohad Period" in Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History (eds. Matthew S. Gordon & Kathryn A. Hain: Oxford University Press, 2017), p. 151.
^Golvin, Lucien (1957). "Notes sur quelques fragments de platre trouvés récemment à la Qal'a des Beni-Hammâd". Mélanges d'Histoire et d'archéologie de l'occident musulman II, Hommage a Georges Marçais. Algiers: Imprimerie Officielle du Gouvernement Général de l'Algérie. pp. 75–94.
^Tabbaa, Yasser (1985). "The Muqarnas Dome: Its Origin and Meaning". Muqarnas. 3: 61–74. doi:10.1163/22118993-90000196.
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