The Prodidomidae, Lamponidae and Gnaphosidae have been considered "higher gnaphosoids", sharing anterior lateral spinnerets consisting of only a single "joint" (article); the "lower gnaphosoids" (Ammoxenidae, Cithaeronidae, Gallieniellidae and Trochanteriidae) retain a distal article that is represented by an entire ring of hardened (sclerotized) cuticle.[3] (Earlier the Lamponidae were grouped with the "lower gnaphosoids", having spinnerets of an intermediate kind.[4]) One hypothesis for the internal phylogeny of the gnaphosoids, defined in this way, is:[2]
Gnaphosoidea
"lower gnaphosoids"
Gallieniellidae
Trochanteridae
Cithaeronidae
Ammoxenidae
"higher gnaphosoids"
Lamponidae
Gnaphosidae
Prodidomidae
A 2014 study of dionychan spiders did not recover Gnaphosoidea as a monophyletic group, instead finding "gnaphosoid" families other than Gnaphosidae and Prodidomidae to be part of a larger clade, mixed in with three other dionychan families, Liocranidae, Trachelidae and Phrurolithidae. Forcing Gnaphosoidea to be monophyletic produced results described as "quite suboptimal".[5]
References
^ abDunlop, Jason A. & Penney, David (2011). "Order Araneae Clerck, 1757"(PDF). In Zhang, Z.-Q. (ed.). Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness. Zootaxa. Auckland, New Zealand: Magnolia Press. ISBN978-1-86977-850-7. Retrieved 2015-10-31.
^Ramírez, M. (2014). "The morphology and phylogeny of Dionychan spiders (Araneae: Araneomorphae)". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 390 (390): 1–374. doi:10.1206/821.1. hdl:2246/6537. S2CID86146467. pp. 323–327.