Foulden Maar

Foulden Maar
Maar
Foulden Maar pit as seen from Moonlight Road
Foulden Maar pit as seen from Moonlight Road
Map
Coordinates: 45°31′36″S 170°13′06″E / 45.5268°S 170.2184°E / -45.5268; 170.2184
LocationOtago, New Zealand
AgeMiocene, ~23.2 Ma
↓
Volcanic fieldWaipiata

Foulden Maar is a fossil site near Middlemarch in Otago, New Zealand. The fossils were deposited in the small deep crater lake of a maar formed around 23 million years ago by a volcano in the Miocene era. The crater lake existed for a period of around 130,000 years, and during this time it gradually filled up with diatomite, composed of annual layers of silica-shelled algae (diatoms). These layers of diatomite have preserved exceptional fossils of fish from the crater lake, and plants, spiders and insects from the sub-tropical forest that developed around the crater. The site is the only known maar of its kind in the Southern Hemisphere and is one of New Zealand's pre-eminent fossil sites. A 2018 proposal to mine Foulden Maar for livestock-food additive attracted significant public opposition. The mining company went into receivership in 2019, and in 2023, the Dunedin City Council reached an agreement with the receivers to purchase the land, including the surrender of the mining permits.

Etymology

Foulden Maar is named for the nearby farm of Foulden Hills, itself probably named after the town of Foulden in the Scottish Borders. Many other local locations—such as Kelso, Ettrick, Roxburgh, and the nearby Nenthorn—are similarly named.[2]

Volcanology

Map
Foulden Maar (red symbol) with map showing nearby surface basalt deposits. Clicking on the map enlarges it, and enables panning and mouseover of volcano name/wikilink and ages before present. Key for the volcanics that are shown with panning is:   basalt (shades of brown/orange),   monogenetic basalts,   undifferentiated basalts,   arc basalts,   arc ring basalts,   olivine (basalts shades of olive),   phonolite (pale salmon),   dacite,   andesite (shades of red),   basaltic andesite,   rhyolite, (ignimbrite is lighter shades of violet), and   plutonic or intusive (gray) - so dolerite/diabase/microgabbro will have shadings towards gray compared to erupted basalt.

Dunedin Volcanic Group

The landscape of the east Otago region includes a large number of volcanoes. Early studies indicated there were separate volcanic areas within the region – Waipiata Volcanic Field and the Dunedin Volcanic Group which contained the Dunedin Volcano and basaltic monogenetic volcanoes like the maar. However, later research has found that these volcanic fields overlap in both space and time.[3]

Foulden Maar is now considered to be one of around 150 volcanoes in the Dunedin Volcanic Group. Eruptions within the group began around 25 Ma near Middlemarch and finished with the youngest in the group by around 9 Ma.[3] The group is considered extinct.[4]: 20 

The maar

Main article: Maar

A maar is a volcanic crater with a low rim that is formed in an explosion (known as a phreatomagmatic eruption), when magma or hot lava comes into contact with groundwater. The maar typically fills with water to become a crater lake. Foulden Maar is a maar-diatreme volcano. The diatreme is a long vertical conduit where gas-filled magma rises to the surface of the Earth during an eruption.

The Foulden Maar crater is filled with fossilised diatomite as well as sedimentary rock, debris flows, and pyroclastic rocks.[5][6]

Dating the eruption

Two main methods have been used for dating the eruption of Foulden Maar. These are biostratigraphy and radiometric dating, based on analysis of samples from drill cores to depth of 180 metres (590 ft) taken at the site in June 2009.

Biostratigraphy

Sedimentary rocks in New Zealand can be dated using analysis based on existing data about the first and last occurrences of key taxa in fossil records. Fossil pollen from the Foulden Maar drill cores has been dated at 23 Ma with reference to fossil pollen found at other fossil sites in Southland and Otago.[4]: 36 

Radiometric dating

This method uses the known rate of decay of radioactive isotopes present in minerals. In this case, the analysis was based on the decay of isotopes of argon. Analysis of volcanic clast taken from a depth of 126 metres (413 ft) in the drill core indicated an age of 23.38 Ma.[4]: 37  Subsequent dating adjustment is to 23.2 ± 0.4 Ma.[3]

Other evidence

A geomagnetic reversal was discovered in minerals at a depth of around 107 metres (351 ft) in the drill core. A global magnetic polarity time scale shows few reversals in the general time frame indicated by other dating methods for the eruption, and the reversal found in the drill core provides supporting evidence for the age.[4]: 37 

Geology

Holotype of the ant Austroponera schneideri

The Foulden Maar crater is approximately 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in diameter; its diatomaceous layer is estimated to be 200 metres (660 ft) deep.[7] The Foulden Maar lake formed in a volcanic crater during the Waitakian (early Miocene), approximately 23 million years ago.[5][8] It was deep and anoxic at the bottom, which precluded decomposition of plant and animal remains. The lake was hydrologically isolated, meaning that no rivers or streams disturbed the sedimentation, which formed multiple laminated layers. These thin layers of silica are known as diatomite, as they are composed primarily of one diatom species, Encyonema jordaniforme Krammer, that grew on submerged rocks or aquatic plants in the lake.[9][10] As the lake gradually filled in and dried out, the diatomite layers capture a detailed fossil record of about 130,000 years.[1]

Palaeontology

Foulden Maar is one of New Zealand's pre-eminent fossil sites, and is unique in the Southern Hemisphere for the time period it covers.[11][12] Fossils were first discovered at the site by gold prospectors in the early 1870s and were described as "polishing powder" by the geologists Frederick Hutton and George Ulrich in 1875.[13]

Although excavations have been limited to a small area the size of a tennis court, palaeontologists have discovered hundreds of undescribed species.[14] The sediments are rich in fossil flowers, fruits, seeds, pollen, and bark from plants, as well as fungi. Several new species of plants have been discovered, and the fossil plant genus Fouldenia is named in honour of its type locality Foulden Maar.[15]

Fossilised freshwater fish are common. The earliest galaxiid fish fossil and the earliest known fossilised eel both come from Foulden Maar.[16] Numerous arthropod fossils have been found at the site, among them Araneae (spiders), Plecoptera (stoneflies), Odonata (dragonflies), Isoptera (termites), Hemiptera (true bugs), Diptera (true flies), Coleoptera (beetles), Trichoptera (caddis flies), and Hymenoptera (wasps, ants and bees).[7] The four arachnids found at Foulden Maar are the first arachnid fossils identified in New Zealand; previous spider specimens had been found in amber but were not identifiable.[17] The first fossil hymenopteran in New Zealand is an ant found at Foulden Maar.[18] Fossils of immature aquatic flies obtained from Foulden Maar are helping scientists to shed light on the ecological history of true flies in New Zealand.[19] 

  • University of Otago students visiting the fossil site in 2006
    University of Otago students visiting the fossil site in 2006
  • Searching for fossils
    Searching for fossils
  • A fossil fish
    A fossil fish

Palaeoecology

This reconstruction of the lake at Foulden Maar 23 million years ago was commissioned by palaeontologist Dr. Daphne Lee and drawn by artist/ecologist Dr. Paula Peeters

The fossil evidence derived from pollen and spores suggests a warm temperate or sub-tropical rain forest with canopy trees, with an understorey of shrubs, ferns and on the margins pioneer species. Climatically, the area resembled modern-day south-eastern Queensland with species that no longer occur in the New Zealand flora.[9] The lake contained small and large galaxiid fishes and eels, ducks (inferred from coprolites), and likely crocodiles as well.[20][21]

Leaf fossils from the deposit have been used to link past spikes in carbon dioxide levels with melting of Antarctic ice,[22][23][24] and the variations in the laminations of the diatomite have been studied to reveal the New Zealand climate from that time.[1]

Mining

Diatomite was extracted in small quantities from the site during World War II when transport difficulties hindered access to foreign sources.[25][26] Diatomite has a range of applications, depending primarily on purity, diatom size, and the trace elements present.

1990s operation

Foulden Maar is on privately owned land. The area was initially developed for mining by Featherston Resources Ltd in 1997.[27] The deposit was estimated as 5 million tonnes (Mt) by NZ Petroleum and Minerals.[28] This proved uneconomic for the company, and its assets were sold to Plaman Resources Ltd in March 2015.[27]

2019 proposal

Plaman Resources claimed the size of the deposit was 31 Mt.[29] The shareholders for Plaman Resources are Iris Corporation, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (50.95 percent) and Burleigh Nominees Ltd, Douglas, Isle of Man (49.05 percent).[30] Plaman Resources' shareholders, the Iris Corporation and Burleigh Nominees, have allegedly been involved in corruption and humans-rights abuses and have unpaid debts.[31] It was unclear if Iris Corporation would remain a shareholder of Plaman if Overseas Investment Office (OIO) approval for the mine was received.[32]

Galaxias effusus from Foulden Maar is the oldest known species of Galaxias, the group to which whitebait belong.

Plaman held the mining rights and planned to turn all of the fossil-containing diatomite into an additive for incorporating into the food of intensively farmed animals such as ducks and pigs.[33] Initial seed funding of about US$20 million (NZ$28 million) was raised through Goldman Sachs New Zealand Holdings, the Auckland branch of New York stock-exchange listed investment bank in August 2018.[34] The financial viability of these plans was reported to hinge on the purchase of an adjoining farm, which the OIO must rule on.[11][35] No timetable was set for the decision.[36] The proposal involved building a new $36.8m processing plant at Milton to crush the diatomite before shipping offshore from Port Chalmers or Bluff. It was estimated by the company that the trucking and processing would create 100 jobs over 27 years.[33] Plaman discussed with local councils applying to New Zealand's Provincial Growth Fund for help with the costs of building the processing plant, although no application was made.[37]

Previous mining at the site yielded low-quality diatomite only suitable for inclusion in concrete, rather than the high-quality product Plaman was marketing as "Black Pearl".[35] Plaman claimed that livestock will benefit nutritionally from Black Pearl, because the diatomite is "rich in natural organic matter (which contains humics, such as humic and fulvic acid) and other valuable nutrients, which have been shown to be beneficial in animal nutrition."[38] Animal nutrition experts expressed doubt that the product produced by Plaman will have any animal-health benefits, as there is no published data to support their claims.[39] Concerns were expressed by the New Zealand Green Party that the diatomite would be sold as fertiliser to support the production of palm oil.[27]

Plaman Resources offered to refrain from mining nearby Hindon Maar if opposition to the Foulden Maar proposal was dropped. They also offered to set aside 5 hectares (12 acres) (12–20% of the deposit) of the eastern pit at Foulden Maar for scientific research,[40] but geologists said that if the deposit is drained for mining the fossils may be lost regardless.[41]

The company was placed in receivership and voluntary liquidation in June 2019, and the OIO approval process was placed on hold.[42][43] The Save Foulden Maar group considered crowdfunding to permanently protect the site.[44]

Opposition

Some locals were opposed to the anticipated levels of dust, noise, and general disruption the proposed mine would create.[35] The Otago Regional Council granted Plaman Resources resource consent to discharge air dust for the purpose of quarrying diatomite until 1 July 2020.[45] The original mining permit was for 20 years but was extended to November 2033.[46] A wider group of people concerned about the loss of the unique fossil record described as "Dunedin's Pompeii" and an "irreplaceable treasure box"[35][47] launched a petition to preserve the site, garnering nearly 10,000 signatures in the first month.[31][48][49] A leaked report by Goldman Sachs details the engagement of former Labour MP Clayton Cosgrove as a lobbyist to "secure approval" for the mine.[35]

Some locals wanted to see the area turned into a geo-park, along similar lines to other diatomite sites in Norway, Germany, and China.[47][50] Former Prime Minister Helen Clark suggested that the site could be protected as a scientific reserve under the Reserves Act 1977,[51] saying "It just doesn't stack up. It's a question of values. Do we value knowledge? Do we value natural heritage? Do we value science and research, or do we just want to a quick dollar from a low value pit? I mean, really, it's distressing."[31][52][53]

MP Clare Curran voiced support for the mining proposal, saying that she had been given assurances by Plaman.[53] She argued that "misinformation" was abundant due to the slow overseas-investment-approval process and said that the resource-consent process would still need to be followed.[53] Dunedin Mayor Dave Cull, who wrote a letter of support for the mining proposal, publicly called for clarification from Plaman after hearing details of the leaked Goldman Sachs report.[54] Clutha Mayor Bryce Cadogan, who also supported the proposal, expressed frustration that commercial sensitivity prevented the release of all the information in favour of the mine.[54]

Dunedin City Council councillor Aaron Hawkins proposed that the council should "recognise the importance of Foulden Maar, and support its preservation, and protection as a scientific resource", and the council voted to do so, later formally opposing the mining proposal.[55][56] The council made this decision after hearing from Daphne Lee, a palaeontologist and associate professor at the University of Otago, explaining the scientific importance of the site.[57] The University of Otago also formally opposed the mining proposal.[58] Sir Alan Mark, chair of the environmental group the Wise Response Society, called for the government to purchase the site and establish a geological reserve.[59]

Juliet Gerrard, the Prime Minister's Chief Science Adviser, said that "the tale is far from simple and at least two weak spots at the interface of science and policy are exposed as we dig through the complexities: there is no obvious point in central government to consider the value of a fossil record; and the science community has perhaps not previously sufficiently communicated the national and international value of this geological site."[60] The Geoscience Society of New Zealand called for the mining proposal to be stopped, with President Jennifer Eccles saying, "New Zealand’s national identity is strongly bound to its unique plants and animals. We cannot stand by and see this fountain of paleontological knowledge about where we have come from destroyed; particularly not for so little transient local and national gain."[12][61]

In November 2019, the Dunedin City Council issued a "notice of desire" under the Public Works Act, signalling the intention to purchase the land and return it to public ownership.[62] As of September 2022, the Dunedin City Council had not proceeded with acquiring the land under the Public Works Act, and the protection of the site remained unclear. Scientists were unable to access the site.[63]

Surrender of mining permits

In February 2023, the Dunedin City Council reached an agreement with the receivers for Plaman Resources for the purchase 42 hectares (100 acres) of land at the site. The agreement included Plaman surrendering mining permits. The total cost of the purchase was $924,000.[64][65]

See also

References

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Further reading

Media related to Foulden Maar at Wikimedia Commons

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Peta infrastruktur dan tata guna lahan di Komune Champlan.  = Kawasan perkotaan  = Lahan subur  = Padang rumput  = Lahan pertanaman campuran  = Hutan  = Vegetasi perdu  = Lahan basah  = Anak sungaiChamplanNegaraPrancisArondisemenPalaiseauKantonVillebon-sur-YvetteAntarkomuneCA Europ'EssonneKode INSEE/pos91136 /  Champlan merupakan sebuah kota dan komune di département Essonne, di region Île-de-France di Prancis. Demografi Menurut sensus 1999, pedu...

Real (Penalva do Castelo)

Coordenadas: 40° 38' 32 N 7° 40' 39 O  Portugal Real    Freguesia   Localização Localização no município de Penalva do CasteloLocalização no município de Penalva do Castelo RealLocalização de Real em Portugal Coordenadas 40° 38' 32 N 7° 40' 39 O Região Centro Sub-região Viseu Dão-Lafões Distrito Viseu Município Penalva do Castelo Código 181110 Administração Tipo Junta de freguesia Características geográficas...

 

Championnat de France de course à l'élimination

Le championnat de France de la course à l'élimination est l'une des épreuves au programme des championnats de France de cyclisme sur piste. Palmarès masculin Élites Année Vainqueur Deuxième Troisième 2021 Quentin Lafargue Cédric Monge Florian Pardon 2022 Jean-Louis Le Ny Quentin Lafargue Thibault Rollée 2023 Thomas Boudat Valentin Tabellion Benjamin Thomas Juniors Année Vainqueur Deuxième Troisième 2017 Maxime Spohr Donavan Grondin Lucas Meunier 2018 Niko Diaz Alexandre Durand Ba...

 

Oemar Mita

Artikel ini tidak memiliki referensi atau pranala luar ke sumber-sumber tepercaya yang dapat menyatakan kelayakan dari subyek yang dibahas.(ajukan diskusi keberatan penghapusan)Artikel ini akan dihapus pada 21 November 2023 jika tidak diperbaiki.Untuk pemulai artikel ini, jika Anda mempertentangkan nominasi penghapusan ini, jangan menghapus peringatan ini. Silakan hubungi sang pengusul, hubungi seorang pengurus, atau pasang tag {{tunggu dulu}} Oemar MitaLc.,Informasi ...

Viola Barry

Viola BarryHarry Carey dan Viola Barry pada Ace of the Saddle (1919)LahirGladys Viola Wilson(1894-03-04)4 Maret 1894Evanston, IllinoisMeninggal2 April 1964(1964-04-02) (umur 70)Hollywood, CaliforniaPekerjaanAktris filmTahun aktif1911–1920Suami/istriJohn Conway (1911–1918)F. McGrew Willis (1921–1957) Viola Barry (4 Maret 1894 – 2 April 1964) adalah seorang aktris Amerika film bisu yang membintangi sejumlah film selama tahun 1910-an. Gladys Viola Wilson lahir di ...

 

Kamianets-Podilskyi massacre

World War II mass shooting of Jews You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in German. (December 2021) Click [show] for important translation instructions. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia. Consider adding ...

 

Kakurenbo

2005 filmKakurenbo: Hide & SeekTheatrical poster.Directed byShuhei MoritaWritten byShuhei MoritaProduced byShuhei MoritaStarringJunko TakeuchiAkiko KobayashiProductioncompanyYamatoWorksRelease date March 2005 (2005-03) Running time25 minutesLanguageJapanese Kakurenbo: Hide & Seek (カクレンボ, Kakurenbo, lit. Hide and Seek) is a Japanese cel-shaded anime short film written and directed by Shuhei Morita. The film entails a game of Otokoyo (オトコヨ, lit. Man Hunt), a ...

Man After Man

Book by Dougal Dixon Man After ManAn Anthropology of the Future First Edition cover. The cover depicts Jimez Smoot's descendant, a spacefaring human descendant living five million years in the future.AuthorDougal DixonCountryUnited KingdomLanguageEnglishGenreSpeculative evolutionScience fictionPublisherBlandford Press (UK)St. Martin's Press (US)Publication date1990Media typePrint (hardback and paperback)Pages128ISBN978-0713720716 Man After Man: An Anthropology of the Future is a 1990 spe...

 

Academia Mexicana de la Lengua

Language organization in Mexico This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Academia Mexicana de la Lengua – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Mexican Academy of the LanguageAcademia Mexicana de la LenguaAbbreviationAMLFormation18...

 

Tatana Island

Island in Papua New Guinea Causeway connecting the docks on Tatana Island with the mainland at Port Moresby Tatana Island is located in the National Capital District of Papua New Guinea.[1] Located in the North-West electorate of Port Moresby. The island is about 0.48 km2 (0.19 sq mi) in area, and consists of a single hilly rise some 800 metres (870 yd) by 500 metres (550 yd) in size. All the settlement on the island is concentrated in a strip of buildings alo...

RAF Stansted Mountfitchet

RAF airbase in England, UK Royal Air Force Station Stansted Mountfitchet Near Stansted Mountfitchet, Essex, England Aerial photograph of RAF Stansted Mountfitchet looking north after a large snowstorm, 9 January 1947. The bomb dump is at the bottom Aerial photograph of the USAAF 2d Tactical Air Depot oriented north, located to the northeast of the Stansted Mountfichet Airfield 8 May 1948Coordinates51°53′06″N 0°14′06″E / 51.88500°N 0.23500°E / 51.88500; 0.23...

 

Beijing Department Store

Department store in Beijing, China Beijing Department Store北京市百货大楼Building facade in 2023Former namesBeijing Wangfujing Department StoreGeneral informationStatusCompletedAddress255 Wangfujing StreetTown or cityBeijingCountryChinaCoordinates39°54′48″N 116°24′37″E / 39.9133°N 116.4104°E / 39.9133; 116.4104OpenedSeptember 1955Technical detailsFloor count6Floor area39,000 m2 Heping Guoju, the retro theme street in Beijing Department Store Beijing ...

 

Australian Gangster

Australian TV series or program Australian GangsterGenre Crime Drama Written byGregor JordanDirected by Gregor Jordan Fadia Abboud ComposerRichard PikeCountry of originAustraliaOriginal languageEnglishNo. of episodes2ProductionExecutive producers Julie McGauran Chris Chard Producers Dan Edwards John Edwards Gregor Jordan CinematographyGarry PhillipsEditors Adam Wills Katrina Barker Production companyRoadshow Rough DiamondOriginal releaseNetworkSeven NetworkRelease13 September (2021-...

Samantha Dubois

Ground breaking Radio Caroline presenter Samantha Dubois in April 1974 onboard tender heading out to Radio Caroline vessel Mi Amigo Samantha Dubois (15 January 1955 – 1 October 1992)[1] was a radio presenter on Radio Caroline during the 1970s and again in 1984.[2] She was born Ellen Kraal in the Netherlands but learned to speak English from time spent growing up in New Zealand in the 1960s.[3] This gave her a unique and instantly recognisable accent. She joined Radio...

 

List of crime films of 2002

Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted. (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Crime films Lists Before 1930 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 1990 1991 1992 1993 19941995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000s 2000 2001 2002 2003 20042005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2020svte This is a list of crime films released in 2002. Title Direc...

 

Mama Runs Wild

1937 film by Ralph Staub Mama Runs WildTheatrical release posterDirected byRalph StaubScreenplay byGordon KahnHal YatesStory byGordon KahnProduced byRalph StaubStarringMary BolandErnest TruexWilliam Bill HenryLynne RobertsMax TerhuneJoseph CrehanCinematographyErnest MillerEdited byEdward MannMusic byAlberto ColomboProductioncompanyRepublic PicturesDistributed byRepublic PicturesRelease date December 22, 1937 (1937-12-22) Running time67 minutesCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglish...

Kultur jaringan

Kultur Jaringan Tanaman Kultur jaringan adalah suatu metode untuk mengisolasi bagian dari tanaman seperti sekelompok sel atau jaringan yang ditumbuhkan dalam kondisi aseptik, sehingga bagian tanaman tersebut bisa dapat memperbanyak diri hingga tumbuh menjadi tanaman-tanaman yang baru kembali dengan sifat yang sama.[1] Prinsip Teknik kultur jaringan memanfaatkan prinsip perbanyakan tumbuhan secara vegetatif.[1] Berbeda dari teknik perbanyakan tumbuhan secara konvensional, tekni...

 

Marple Lock Flight

View down from Marple top lock. Marple Lock Flight is a flight of sixteen canal locks, situated on the Peak Forest Canal in Marple, a suburb of Stockport. History Whilst the rest of the canal was opened to navigation by 1796, insufficient money was available to complete the necessary flight of locks to connect the two halves; a temporary tramway was therefore installed until such time as the locks could be completed, which finally happened in 1804.[1] With the end of commercial carryi...

 

Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!