Empirical research

A scientist gathering data for her research

Empirical research is research using empirical evidence. It is also a way of gaining knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience. Empiricism values some research more than other kinds. Empirical evidence (the record of one's direct observations or experiences) can be analyzed quantitatively or qualitatively. Quantifying the evidence or making sense of it in qualitative form, a researcher can answer empirical questions, which should be clearly defined and answerable with the evidence collected (usually called data). Research design varies by field and by the question being investigated. Many researchers combine qualitative and quantitative forms of analysis to better answer questions that cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social sciences and in education.

In some fields, quantitative research may begin with a research question (e.g., "Does listening to vocal music during the learning of a word list have an effect on later memory for these words?") which is tested through experimentation. Usually, the researcher has a certain theory regarding the topic under investigation. Based on this theory, statements or hypotheses will be proposed (e.g., "Listening to vocal music has a negative effect on learning a word list."). From these hypotheses, predictions about specific events are derived (e.g., "People who study a word list while listening to vocal music will remember fewer words on a later memory test than people who study a word list in silence."). These predictions can then be tested with a suitable experiment. Depending on the outcomes of the experiment, the theory on which the hypotheses and predictions were based will be supported or not,[1] or may need to be modified and then subjected to further testing.

Terminology

The term empirical was originally used to refer to certain ancient Greek practitioners of medicine who rejected adherence to the dogmatic doctrines of the day, preferring instead to rely on the observation of phenomena as perceived in experience. Later empiricism referred to a theory of knowledge in philosophy which adheres to the principle that knowledge arises from experience and evidence gathered specifically using the senses. In scientific use, the term empirical refers to the gathering of data using only evidence that is observable by the senses or in some cases using calibrated scientific instruments. What early philosophers described as empiricist and empirical research have in common is the dependence on observable data to formulate and test theories and come to conclusions.

Usage

The researcher attempts to describe accurately the interaction between the instrument (or the human senses) and the entity being observed. If instrumentation is involved, the researcher is expected to calibrate his/her instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects. In other words, it describes the research that has not taken place before and their results.

In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned research designs for the collection of empirical data, and academic rigor plays a large part of judging the merits of research design. Several typologies for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley.[2] They are responsible for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in educational research.

Scientific research

Accurate analysis of data using standardized statistical methods in scientific studies is critical to determining the validity of empirical research. Statistical formulas such as regression, uncertainty coefficient, t-test, chi square, and various types of ANOVA (analyses of variance) are fundamental to forming logical, valid conclusions. If empirical data reach significance under the appropriate statistical formula, the research hypothesis is supported. If not, the null hypothesis is supported (or, more accurately, not rejected), meaning no effect of the independent variable(s) was observed on the dependent variable(s).

The result of empirical research using statistical hypothesis testing is never proof. It can only support a hypothesis, reject it, or do neither. These methods yield only probabilities. Among scientific researchers, empirical evidence (as distinct from empirical research) refers to objective evidence that appears the same regardless of the observer. For example, a thermometer will not display different temperatures for each individual who observes it. Temperature, as measured by an accurate, well calibrated thermometer, is empirical evidence. By contrast, non-empirical evidence is subjective, depending on the observer. Following the previous example, observer A might truthfully report that a room is warm, while observer B might truthfully report that the same room is cool, though both observe the same reading on the thermometer. The use of empirical evidence negates this effect of personal (i.e., subjective) experience or time.

The varying perception of empiricism and rationalism shows concern with the limit to which there is dependency on experience of sense as an effort of gaining knowledge. According to rationalism, there are a number of different ways in which sense experience is gained independently for the knowledge and concepts. According to empiricism, sense experience is considered as the main source of every piece of knowledge and the concepts. In general, rationalists are known for the development of their own views following two different way. First, the key argument can be placed that there are cases in which the content of knowledge or concepts end up outstripping the information. This outstripped information is provided by the sense experience (Hjørland, 2010, 2). Second, there is construction of accounts as to how reasoning helps in the provision of addition knowledge about a specific or broader scope. Empiricists are known to be presenting complementary senses related to thought.

First, there is development of accounts of how there is provision of information by experience that is cited by rationalists. This is insofar for having it in the initial place. At times, empiricists tend to be opting skepticism as an option of rationalism. If experience is not helpful in the provision of knowledge or concept cited by rationalists, then they do not exist (Pearce, 2010, 35). Second, empiricists have a tendency of attacking the accounts of rationalists, while considering reasoning to be an important source of knowledge or concepts.

The overall disagreement between empiricists and rationalists shows major concerns about how knowledge is gained with respect to the sources of knowledge and concepts. In some of the cases, disagreement on the point of gaining knowledge results in the provision of conflicting responses to other aspects as well. There might be a disagreement in the overall feature of warrant, while limiting the knowledge and thought. Empiricists are known for sharing the view that there is no existence of innate knowledge and rather that is derivation of knowledge out of experience. These experiences are either reasoned using the mind or sensed through the five senses human possess (Bernard, 2011, 5). On the other hand, rationalists are known to be sharing the view that there is existence of innate knowledge and this is different for the objects of innate knowledge being chosen.

In order to follow rationalism, there must be adoption of one of the three claims related to the theory that are deduction or intuition, innate knowledge, and innate concept. The more there is removal of concept from mental operations and experience, there can be performance over experience with increased plausibility in being innate. Further ahead, empiricism in context with a specific subject provides a rejection of the corresponding version related to innate knowledge and deduction or intuition (Weiskopf, 2008, 16). Insofar as there is acknowledgement of concepts and knowledge within the area of subject, the knowledge has major dependence on experience through human senses.

Empirical cycle

Empirical cycle according to A.D. de Groot

A.D. de Groot's empirical cycle:[3]

  1. Observation: The observation of a phenomenon and inquiry concerning its causes.
  2. Induction: The formulation of hypotheses - generalized explanations for the phenomenon.
  3. Deduction: The formulation of experiments that will test the hypotheses (i.e. confirm them if true, refute them if false).
  4. Testing: The procedures by which the hypotheses are tested and data are collected.
  5. Evaluation: The interpretation of the data and the formulation of a theory - an abductive argument that presents the results of the experiment as the most reasonable explanation for the phenomenon.

See also

References

  1. ^ Goodwin, C. J. (2005). Research in Psychology: Methods and Design. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  2. ^ Campbell, D. & Stanley, J. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
  3. ^ Heitink, G. (1999). Practical Theology: History, Theory, Action Domains: Manual for Practical Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, p. 233. ISBN 9780802842947

Read other articles:

Mr. Robot adalah seri televisi drama seru Amerika Serikat yang dibuat oleh Sam Esmail. Seri ini dibintangi oleh Rami Malek yang memerankan Elliot Alderson, ahli keamanan maya dan peretas yang menderita gangguan kegelisahan sosial dan depresi klinis. Elliot diajak bergabung dengan kelompok aktivis peretas bernama fsociety oleh seorang anarkis yang biasa dipanggil Mr. Robot (Christian Slater). Tujuan fsociety adalah memutihkan semua utang dengan mengunci data keuangan E Corp, konglomerat terbes...

 

 

Andi PutraS.H., M.H.Bupati Kuantan Singingi ke-5Masa jabatan2 Juni 2021 – 19 Oktober 2021PresidenJoko WidodoGubernurSyamsuarWakilSuhardiman AmbyPendahuluMursiniPenggantiSuhardiman Amby (Plt.)Ketua DPRD Kabupaten Kuantan SingingiMasa jabatan2014 – 2020PendahuluMuslimPenggantiZulhendri Nazaruddin (Plt.)AdamKetua Komisi C DPRD Kabupaten Kuantan SingingiMasa jabatan2012 – 2014Ketua DPRDMuslimKetua Komisi A DPRD Kabupaten Kuantan SingingiMasa jabatan2009 ...

 

 

Untuk film Tiongkok, lihat So I Married an Anti-fan. So I Married an Anti-fanPoster promosiHangul그래서 나는 안티팬과 결혼했다 GenreKomedi romantis[1]BerdasarkanSo I Married an Anti-fanoleh Kim Eun-jungDitulis olehKim Eun-jungNam Ji-yeonSutradaraKang Cheol-wooPemeranChoi Tae-joonChoi Soo-youngHwang Chan-sungHan Ji-anNegara asalKorea SelatanBahasa asliKoreaProduksiPengaturan kameraKamera tunggalRumah produksiGodin MediaWarner Bros. TelevisionDistributorWarner Bros. Televis...

Campeonato Camaronês de Futebol MTN Elite One Dados gerais Organização FECAFOOT Edições 58 Outros nomes MTN Elite OneChampionnat du Cameroun de football Local de disputa  Camarões Sistema ida e volta (34 rodadas) Dados históricos Primeiro vencedor Oryx Club (1960/61) Último vencedor Cotonsport (2018) Maior vencedor Cotonsport (15 títulos) editar O Championnat du Cameroun de football (português: Campeonato do Camarões de Futebol) ou MTN Elite One é a principal divisão do fute...

 

 

American diplomat and politician (1948-2011) J. Peter Terpeluk Jr. (February 18, 1948 – August 23, 2011) was a Republican politician from Pennsylvania and an American diplomat who was the United States Ambassador to Luxembourg for part of the tenure of President George W. Bush. Formative years Born in Lafayette Hill, Pennsylvania on February 18, 1948, Terpeluk graduated from Malvern Preparatory School and received a Bachelor of Arts degree from La Salle College and master's degree in pu...

 

 

聖約翰教堂 聖約翰教堂(德語:Johanniskirche)是德國城市呂訥堡的一座信義宗的教堂,也是該市歷史最古老的教堂,位於市中心。聖約翰教堂地處歐洲磚塊哥特式之路上[1],是一座磚塊哥特式建築的代表作。教堂奉獻給施洗約翰。這座教堂修建於1300年至1370年之間,並在1420年進行修繕。教堂的尖塔高達108米,是下薩克森州最高的教堂尖塔。 參考資料 ^ St.-Johannis-Kirche, L...

Elena Uhlig, Gesine Cukrowski und Felicitas Woll (2019) Elena Uhlig (* 31. Juli 1975 in Düsseldorf)[1] ist eine deutsche Schauspielerin, Autorin und Moderatorin. Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Leben 2 Filmografie (Auswahl) 3 Hörspiele 4 Veröffentlichungen 5 Weblinks 6 Einzelnachweise Leben Elena Uhlig ist die Tochter einer Deutschen und eines Griechen.[2] Sie wuchs als Einzelkind bei der Mutter in Düsseldorf auf. Sie studierte von 1995 bis 1998 Schauspiel an der Hochschule für Scha...

 

 

Single by Madness The Return of the Los Palmas 7Single by Madnessfrom the album Absolutely B-side That's the Way to Do It Swan Lake Released16 January 1981 (1981-01-16)Recorded1980Genre 2 Tone ska pop Length 2:33 (single version) 2:03 (album version) LabelStiffSongwriter(s) Mike Barson Daniel Woodgate Mark Bedford Producer(s) Clive Langer Alan Winstanley Madness singles chronology Embarrassment (1980) The Return of the Los Palmas 7 (1981) Grey Day (1981) The Return of the Los P...

 

 

Philippine brand name for biscuit snacks FilipinosProduct typeBiscuit doughnutOwnerArtiachCountrySpainWebsitehttps://www.artiach.es/en Filipinos is the brand name for a series of biscuit doughnut snacks made by Mondelez International.[1] In France, Spain, Portugal and the Nordic countries they are produced and sold under the 'Artiach' brand name. Under license to United Biscuits, in the Netherlands they are sold and produced locally under the Verkade brand.[2] They have drawn ...

Біг на 400 метрів з бар'єрами (жінки)на Чемпіонаті світу з легкої атлетики 2019 Сідні Мак-Лафлін та Далайла Мухаммад на фінішній прямійМісце «Халіфа»Учасників 39 з 27 країнРозкладЗабіги 1 жовтняПівфінали 2 жовтняФінал 4 жовтняПризери01 ! Далайла Мухаммад02 ! Сідні Мак-Лаф...

 

 

Xiaomi Redmi 1 Виробник XiaomiСерія RedmiМодель HM2013022, HM2013023Сумісні мережі GSM, 3GДата представлення 12 липня, 2013; 10 років тому (2013-07-12)Наступник Xiaomi Redmi 2Схожі моделі Xiaomi Redmi 1SТип СмартфонФормфактор МоноблокРозміри 137 × 69 × 9,9 ммМаса 158 гОпераційна система Початкова: Android 4.2....

 

 

Clarence Saunders' first self-service grocery store, concept developed in 1949 into the first fully automated grocery store, Keedoozle - Key Does All. Clarence Saunders' first self-service Keedoozle grocery store supply room Keedoozle automated grocery store in Memphis, Tennessee. Photo taken by Paul Robert Alvey Family in 1948 Barcelona Spain 2006 - automated grocery store Automated grocery store in Barcelona metro 2006 Keedoozle was the first fully automated grocery store in the United Stat...

Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi Sant' Andrea degli Scozzesi (bahasa Indonesia: Santo Andreas dari orang-orang Skotlandia) adalah bekas gereja Katolik di Roma, dekat Piazza Barberini di Via delle Quattro Fontane. Pernah menjadi surga bagi Umat Katolik Skotlandia di Roma, gereja ini didekonsekrasi pada tahun 1962 dan masih berdiri sampai sekarang.[1] Sejarah Gereja ini dibangun di bawah Paus Klemens VIII pada tahun 1592 dengan judul S.Andrea e S.Margherita regina. Gereja ini dibangun untuk k...

 

 

Hong Kong actor (1952–2021) Not to be confused with Richard Ng Yiu-hon (吳耀漢), another prominent Hong Kong comedian with the same name in English. Not to be confused with Meng Da (孟達), a military general of premodern China with similar given name in Chinese. In this Hong Kong name, the surname is Ng. In accordance with Hong Kong custom, the Western-style name is Richard Ng and the Chinese-style name is Ng Man-tat. Ng Man-tat吳孟達BornNg Man-tat(1952-01-02)2 January 1952Xiamen, F...

 

 

German PortugueseLuso-alemães (Portuguese)Portugiesen in Deutschland (German) Eugénia da Conceição-HeldtThomas MannMalvina GarriguesMaximilian IJúlia da Silva BruhnsCédric SoaresTatjana PintoHerman JoséGrada KilombaTotal population244,217[1]LanguagesGerman, PortugueseReligionPredominantly Christianity (Roman Catholicism), IrreligionRelated ethnic groupsOther Portuguese people, Portuguese in Austria, Portuguese in Liechtenstein, Portuguese in Switzerland Portuguese in ...

Location of Saluda County in South Carolina This is a list of the National Register of Historic Places listings in Saluda County, South Carolina. This is intended to be a complete list of the properties and districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Saluda County, South Carolina, United States. The locations of National Register properties and districts for which the latitude and longitude coordinates are included below, may be seen in a map.[1] Eleven properties and dis...

 

 

Laugh at the Bank character, used annually for the festival logo Laugh at the Bank is an annual weekend comedy festival founded in 2009 by Féile an Phobail in Belfast, Northern Ireland. The festival runs over the Spring Bank Holiday in May and features comedians from around the world. The festival also features charitable events such as Bull Runs.[1] History See also: Féile an Phobail In December 2008, Féile an Phobail, an arts organisation which runs four – five festivals a ...

 

 

2019 Bengali drama film For the song by Halsey, see Hopeless Fountain Kingdom. This article needs a plot summary. Please add one in your own words. (July 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) The PrologueBengaliNirontor Directed byChandrasish RayWritten byChandrasish RayProduced byProsenjit ChatterjeeCinematographySoumik HaldarMusic byAvijit KunduProductioncompanyNideas ProductionDistributed byZee5Release dates October 2019 (2019-10) (MAMI)[1] 28...

Metro station in Hyderabad, India UppalHyderabad Metro stationAerial view of Uppal metro stationGeneral informationLocationInner Ring Rd, Survey Colony, Industrial Development Area, Uppal, Hyderabad, Telangana 500039[1]Coordinates17°23′59″N 78°33′36″E / 17.39972°N 78.56000°E / 17.39972; 78.56000Owned by Larsen & Toubro (90%) Government of Telangana (10%) Operated byHyderabad Metro Rail Ltd.Line(s)Blue LinePlatforms2 (2 side platform)Tracks2Const...

 

 

Former association football club in England Football club1st Surrey Rifles1st Surrey Rifles regimental badge, as sometimes found on the club's shirtsFull nameFirst Surrey Rifles Football ClubNickname(s)the Rifles,[1] the Riflemen[2]Founded1869GroundParade Ground, Brunswick Road, Camberwell Home colours 1st Surrey Rifles F.C. was an amateur football club, open to members of the corps, who featured in the early years of the FA Cup from 1872 to 1878.[3] The first reported...

 

 

Strategi Solo vs Squad di Free Fire: Cara Menang Mudah!