CrossFit is a branded fitness regimen that involves constantly varied functional movements performed at high intensity.[1] The method was developed by Greg Glassman,[2] who founded CrossFit with Lauren Jenai in 2000,[3][4][5] with CrossFit its registered trademark.[6] The company forms what has been described as the biggest fitness chain in the world,[7][8] with around 12,000 affiliated gyms in over 150 countries as of 2022, under half of which are located in the United States.[9][10]
Studies indicate that CrossFit can have positive effects on a number of physical fitness parameters and body composition, as well as on the mental state and social life of its participants.[16][17] CrossFit, however, has been criticized for causing more injuries than other sporting activities such as weightlifting; although a review article in the Journal of Sports Rehabilitation found that "the risk of injury from participation in CrossFit is comparable to or lower than some common forms of exercise or strength training".[18] Its health benefits and injury rates are determined to be similar to other exercise programs.[19] There are also concerns that its methodology may cause exertional rhabdomyolysis, a possible life-threatening condition also found in other sports,[20][21][22] resulting from a breakdown of muscle from extreme exertion.[23][24]
History
Practicing American kettlebell swing
CrossFit, meaning cross-discipline fitness,[25] was first conceived as a company in 1996 as Cross-Fit.[26] Greg Glassman, a former gymnast, created his first CrossFit-style workout when he was 16 by combining elements of gymnastics with weightlifting.[2] The workout he created was called Fran that added thrusters (a combination of front squat and push press) to pull-ups.[27] Greg Glassman and Lauren Jenai incorporated CrossFit, Inc. in 2000.[28][29] They opened a gym in Santa Cruz, California in 2001 and posted their workouts on the Internet for their clients, and these workouts were then quickly adopted by individuals in the police, military, firefighting services. Those who used Glassman's internet postings expressed an interest in officially incorporating his workouts into their training regimen, and the first affiliated gym (known as 'box'), CrossFit North in Seattle, Washington, was then formed in 2002.[25] Glassman began to develop a curriculum to train and certify coaches and gym owners using his methodology.[25] Coaches associated with CrossFit include Louie Simmons, John Welbourn, and Bob Harper.
The number of CrossFit-affiliated gyms grew quickly: there were 13 gyms in 2005, 8,000 in 2013, and more than 13,000 in 2016.[30] By 2018, there were around 15,500 CrossFit gyms in 162 countries.[31][32] Its membership worldwide has been estimated to between two and five million.[33][34][35] However, the COVID-19 pandemic forced the closure of around 20% of its gyms (around 25% in the US),[25][36] and disaffiliations due to the Glassman controversy in 2020 further reduced the number of paid affiliations to 9,400 by early 2021. The number has since recovered to around 12,500 including non-paying affiliates (10,800 paying) by early 2022.[37] Strong growth was observed in Europe,[38] with France having the most CrossFit gyms outside of United States.[39]
Glassman obtained complete control over the company in 2012 after a divorce with Jenai. Jenai had tried to sell her 50% share in the company to an investment firm after the divorce settlement, which Glassman blocked and bought her share after raising a $16 million loan from Summit Partners.[40]
On June 24, 2020, following the outcry after Glassman's comments regarding the murder of George Floyd it was announced that he was selling the company to Eric Roza, former CEO of Datalogix, in partnership with investment firm Berkshire Partners.[41] Roza assumed the role of CEO after the conclusion of the sale in July.[42] In late November, CrossFit announced a building lease for its Boulder headquarters.[43] At the end of 2020, CrossFit became an LLC.[citation needed] Roza stood down as CEO of CrossFit in February 2022 and Don Faul took over in August 2022.[44]
Overview
Methodology
CrossFitters performing box jump (left) and step-up (right).Step-up can be used as a scaling option for box jump
CrossFit is a strength, conditioning, and overall fitness program consisting mainly of a mix of aerobic (cardio) exercises, calisthenics (bodyweight exercises), and Olympic weightlifting.[45] CrossFit describes its strength and conditioning program as "constantly varied functional movements executed at high intensity across broad time and modal domains",[1] and it aims to improve the overall fitness of its participants by increasing their work capacity in these domains.[46] CrossFit believes there are ten components or domains in physical fitness: cardiovascular/respiratory endurance, stamina, strength, flexibility, power, speed, coordination, agility, balance, accuracy.[47][48]
CrossFit proposes nutrition to be the foundation of fitness, and on this foundation metabolic conditioning can improve cardiovascular efficiency, gymnastics can build an athlete's spatial awareness and body control, while weightlifting and throwing allow for better control of external objects, so that a general physical preparedness required for any sport can be achieved.[49] Crossfit focuses on functional movements, movements it considers natural and essential with real-life application.[50] It advocates training with high intensity, believing that such training can achieve the desired result quicker, that increasing weights when lifting can help build strength, while Increasing the repetitions of movements can improve stamina and endurance.[51] It also believes that physical training should be varied regularly to achieve a general level of fitness, rather than only excelling in any single activity.[52]
WODs
Thruster, consisting of a front squat and an overhead press, is a common barbell movement in CrossFit
The workout in CrossFit is referred to as WOD for "Workout of the Day". Every WOD may be a mix of movements from one or more of the three different modalities: monostructural/metabolic conditioning ("metcon"), weightlifting, and gymnastics.[53] Examples of movements from gymnastics include: pull-up, muscle-up, box-jump, lunge, handstandpush-up, and rope-climb; examples from cardio/metcon include: running, cycling, double under, and rowing; and examples from weightlifting include deadlifts, back squat, snatch, clean and jerk, thrusters, dumbbellpush press, wall ball, and kettlebell swing.[53][54][55] A WOD can have a number of movements, and each movement is typically performed with a certain number of repetitions; for example, a WOD called Fran has two movements: thrusters and pull-ups, and each of these are performed 21 times, followed by further rounds of 15 and 9 repetitions.[56] The duration and content of the WOD is not fixed and varied daily.[57] WODs are often given specific names and some are considered benchmark WODs, for example, "Fran", "Grace", and "Helen" from "The Girls" workouts,[58][59] A WOD called "Murph" from the "Heroes" workouts has become more widely known and is performed outside of CrossFit.[60][61]
A kipping pull-up
If the WOD is performed as written, it is referred to "Rx'd" (for "as prescribed"). However, the intensity, volume, or movements of the WOD can be adjusted to suit the fitness level, experience, ability, physical limitations or time constraints of the participants, and this is called "scaling".[62] In scaling, the number of repetitions, length of time, and weights may be reduced, and movements may be modified to be easier to perform while maintaining the same intended stimulus using similar movement patterns.[63][64] Scaling allows people of all ages and experience to participate in the workout.[65]
Some movements are specific to CrossFit; for example, in order to perform certain movements such as pull-up faster, "kipping" that relies on the momentum of the kip to move faster may be employed,[66] although its use for these purposes is considered controversial to non-practitioners of CrossFit.[67][68][69][70]
CrossFit-affiliated gyms, or "boxes", have considerable freedom in how their classes are organized, therefore there can be significant differences in their classes. In general, classes usually last an hour, and they typically include a warm-up, a WOD of 10–30 minutes, and a cool-down/stretching/recovery session.[16] Some gyms also have a strength-focused movement prior to the WOD, or a skill development segment.[16] CrossFit, however, encourages most athletes to prioritize intensity over supplemental strength training or additional programming.[71] Performance on each WOD may be scored and/or ranked to encourage competition and to track individual progress. Some affiliates offer additional classes, such as Olympic weightlifting, that are not centered on a WOD.[72] Many offer on-ramp or introductory courses for beginners to teach the fundamental movements of CrossFit.[73] Some affiliates may also offer diet advice to their members following CrossFit's nutrition recommendations, adopting paleo, keto and/or zone diets, or counting macros.[74]
Cycling on Assault bikes as cardio exercises in CrossFit
CrossFit has released a daily WOD for use by the general public since 2001.[79] It also offers CrossFit Affiliate Programming (CAP) that gives detailed class plan such as warm-up, workout, scaling options and other resources to its affiliated gyms since 2021.[80][81] Individuals and affiliated gyms may also create their own programming based on CrossFit's general methodology, or programming from independent companies.[82][83][84][85]
Toes-to-bar, a gymnastics movement used in CrossFit
A 2014 statistical analysis showed that 50% of CrossFit participants were male and 50% were female.[86]
Usage and impact
CrossFit methodology is used by thousands of private affiliated gyms, fire departments, law-enforcement agencies, and military organizations, including the Royal Danish Life Guards,[87][88][89][90] as well as by some U.S. and Canadian high school physical education teachers, high school and college sports teams, and the Miami Marlins.[28][91][92]
The rise of CrossFit has been attributed as the primary reason for the popularity of HIIT as a form of exercise when it reached the top in a worldwide survey of fitness trends by American College Sports Medicine (ACSM) in 2013.[93][94] It was also the top trend in 2018 and stayed in the top 5 until 2021.[95] Its popularity also led to the emergence of a number of gym franchises based on HIIT such as F45 and Orangetheory in the 2010s.[96][97][98] The use of weightlifting in the sport has also created a spike in interest in Olympic weightlifting in the United States.[99][100]
Business model
There are three main revenue streams for CrossFit: affiliation, education, and sport. CrossFit licenses the CrossFit name to affiliated gyms for an annual fee.[101] The affiliation fee was set at US$3,000 a year from 2011,[102][103] and stayed unchanged until 2024 when it was raised to $4,500.[104] However, the affiliation fee is waived for those in law enforcement, military service, prisons, schools and universities.[105] The affiliation model is distinct from a franchise, and CrossFit gyms have complete freedom in their operation once the requirements for affiliation have been met.[106] At its peak in 2018, there were over 15,000 CrossFit affiliates, including non-paying ones, in 162 countries.[31] There are over 11,000 paying affiliates as of 2024.[9]
CrossFit also provides training courses to certify trainers and gym owner.[101] The standard two-day "Level 1 Certificate Course," (L1) is a requirement for CrossFit gym owners.[107][108] The requirement was raised to Level 2 (L2) for 2024.[104] Level 3 Trainer examination and Level 4 Coach assessment are also available.[109] CrossFit also offers CrossFit Kids Course, and many online course offerings. During the COVID-19 pandemic, CrossFit also began offering an Online Level 1 Course.[citation needed] There were more than 35,000 accredited CrossFit trainers in 2013.[110]
As part of its services to the affiliates, CrossFit offers CrossFit Affiliate Programming (CAP) to gyms for free since 2023.[81] Affiliates, however, may develop their own programming, pricing, and instructional methods. Many athletes and trainers see themselves as part of a contrarian, insurgent movement that questions conventional fitness wisdom.[111] Other specialized adaptations include programs for pregnant women, seniors, and military special operations candidates.[112] CrossFit makes use of a virtual community internet model.[113][114] Many independent companies have been set up to provide online services including training programs for CrossFit communities, such as Mayhem, Linchpin, HWPO, PRVN, CompTrain and GoWOD, while other companies supply equipment and apparel such as Rogue Fitness and NoBull.[115][116]
CrossFit also organizes the CrossFit Games and its qualifying rounds such the Open. Participants in the Open pay a registration fee to compete.[117] The total generated from all the revenue streams for CrossFit has been estimated to be around $100 million a year.[2][118]
Participants in CrossFit Open performing a form of burpee
The CrossFit Games, created and directed by Dave Castro until 2021, have been held every summer since 2007. Athletes at the Games compete in workouts they learn about only hours beforehand, sometimes including surprise elements that are not part of the typical CrossFit regimen. Past examples include a rough-water swim, a softball throw, and a pegboard climb.[119] The Games are styled as a venue for determining the "Fittest on Earth," where competitors should be "ready for anything."[120]
In 2011, the Games adopted an online qualification format, facilitating participation by athletes worldwide. During the five-week-long "CrossFit Open", one new workout is released each week. Athletes have several days to complete the workout and submit their scores online, with either a video or validation by a CrossFit affiliate. Since the Open is available to any level of athlete, many affiliates encourage member participations.[121] The Open has been described as the largest participatory sporting event in the world, and the number of worldwide participants reached 415,000 in 2018.[122][123]
From 2011 to 2018, the top CrossFit Open performers for individuals and teams in each region advance to the regional events, held over the following two months around the world. Each regional event qualifies a specified number of its top finishers to send to the Games. The Games include divisions for individuals of each gender, co-ed teams, and a number of Masters and Teenage age groups.[124]
For the 2019 Games, regionals were discontinued and individual athletes qualify by either being the national champion in the Open, finishing in the top 20 worldwide in the Open, winning a CrossFit-sanctioned event, or by invitation.[125] In 2020, due to COVID-19 pandemic the Games format was significantly altered for 2020 CrossFit Games: the competition was separated into two parts, with the first part consisting of an online contest for 60 athletes, with the top five male and female finishers qualified for the second part and they participated in-person in the final in Aromas, California.[126] The Games format returned to normal in 2021, but the qualification system was revamped; the participants qualified based on their continental regions, and a Quarterfinal stage was added between the Open and the Semifinals.[127]
During the 2024 Crossfit games, athlete Lazar Dukic died in the run swim event in Ft. Worth Texas. After suspension for the day, the games continued on Friday after a tribute to Lazar. Some athletes chose not to compete after his death, including both champions from 2023.[96]
Certifications
CrossFit staff demonstrating squat techniques during a level one CrossFit instructor certification at a military base
There are four levels of CrossFit coach certification. To open a CrossFit affiliated gym, it originally only required a coach to be certified to level one.[128] In late 2023, the requirement for owners of affiliated gym was raised to level two.[104]
Level One (CF-L1) is the introduction level, where participants attend a group weekend class, talk about the basic methodology and fundamentals of CrossFit, and learn how to conduct their classes. They go over techniques and how to adjust them for those who cannot perform them. After completing the Level One training course, one should be confident in conducting a class, scale workouts accordingly for athletes, and hold CrossFit to its standards.[129]
In the second level, training goes deeper into the mechanics of the movements and how to be leaders and communicate with other students. In the Level Two course, participants learn about athletic capacity and are evaluated as a trainer in groups.[130]
To earn the Level Three certificate, a coach one must complete 1,500 hours of active fitness coaching and become CPR certified. To maintain the certification, Level 3 coaches must obtain 50 continuing education units every three years.[131] To earn the Level Four certificate, the highest level currently recognized by CrossFit, Inc., the coach must record several years as a Level Three and pass a test.[132]
Criticism
Injury
Movements such as bar muscle-ups, pull-ups, or Olympic lifts involving a high load on the shoulder moving through a wide range of motion may cause shoulder injury if performed incorrectly or when fatigued[133][18][134]
The risk of injury associated with CrossFit training has been a controversial question since the program's popularity began to climb in the early 2000s.[29] Critics have accused CrossFit, Inc. of using dangerous movements and inappropriate levels of intensity, and allowing underqualified individuals to become CrossFit trainers.[135][136][137][138]
In response to these criticisms, CrossFit, Inc. says, "CrossFit is relatively safe even when performed with poor technique, but it is safer and more effective when performed with good technique."[139] CrossFit, Inc. also says the risk of injury can be reduced by properly scaling and modifying workouts, a concept taught on its website and at the CrossFit Level 1 Trainer Course.[140][141]
CrossFit supports this position by citing three academic surveys of CrossFit participants. These surveys calculated injury rates between 2.4 and 3.1 injuries per 1000 hours of training, which CrossFit argues is consistent with or below injury rates found in "general fitness training."[142] An independent 2018 review of scientific literature also found that "injury rate with CrossFit was comparable to or lower than injury rates with Olympic weightlifting, distance running, military conditioning, track and field, rugby, or gymnastics." The review found that more men than women suffered from injuries in CrossFit, with injuries to the shoulders found to be more common (25%) than lower back (14.3%) and knee (13.1%), and injuries may occur in situations where supervision was not always available to athletes.[18]
Lawsuit by CrossFit, Inc. against the NSCA
A 2013 study published in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research entitled "Crossfit-based high-intensity power training improves maximal aerobic fitness and body composition" followed 54 participants for ten weeks of CrossFit training. The study said that "...a notable percentage of our subjects (16%) did not complete the training program and return for follow-up testing." "The authors said "This may call into question the risk-benefit ratio for such extreme training programs..." Out of the "10 of the 11 participants who did not complete the study have provided their reasons for not finishing, with only 2 mentioning injury or health conditions that prevented them from completing follow-up testing."[143]
In 2014, CrossFit, Inc. filed a lawsuit against the National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA) for publishing this study, alleging the data was false and "intended to scare participants away from CrossFit."[144] The NSCA denies CrossFit, Inc.'s allegations[144] but issued an erratum acknowledging that the injury data were incorrect.[145]
In September 2016, the District Court ruled in favor of CrossFit as the injury data were found to be false, but not that the NSCA was commercially motivated or that the publishing of the study was defamatory as the NSCA no longer stood behind the study.[146] The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research eventually retracted the paper in its July 2017 issue.[147]
In February 2017, CrossFit filed for sanctions against the NSCA after one of the NSCA's witnesses admitted to falsifying statements during deposition.[148] In May 2017, the Court issued 17 issues sanctions against the NSCA, writing that the organization did have a commercial motive to falsify the data, had published the false data knowingly to disparage CrossFit, and had misled the public with their erratum.[148] CrossFit was awarded $74,000 in legal fees and allowed to continue investigating the NSCA. If the neutral-party analysis of the NSCA servers turns up any further misconduct, CrossFit may file an amended complaint for further sanctioning and compensation for lost revenue.[149] On December 4, 2019, CrossFit was awarded $4 million in sanction not including damages from the case.[150]
In May 2017, CrossFit, Inc. contacted the Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine with a demand for the retraction of another paper, published in the journal earlier that month.[151] The paper states that CrossFit participants "are more likely to be injured and to seek medical treatment compared with participants in traditional weightlifting", a finding that CrossFit, Inc. said was based on scientific errors and material from retracted or misrepresented studies.[152]
Movements involving eccentric contraction of muscles, e.g. sit-ups on a GHD machine here, can cause exertional rhabdomyolysis if performed at high volume[153]
Exertional rhabdomyolysis is a condition that can affect athletes in many sports especially endurance sports such as marathon running and triathlon, and athletes who perform high volume of exercise movements involving eccentric contraction or intense exercises when in excessive fatigue, particularly when the exercises are performed in extremes of heat.[22][21] The relationship between CrossFit and exertional rhabdomyolysis has been a subject of controversy for the company. Some medical professionals have asserted that both the CrossFit methodology and the environment created by CrossFit trainers put athletes at high risk for developing rhabdomyolysis.[154][155][24]
A man successfully sued his uncertified CrossFit trainers and was awarded US$300,000 in damages,[156] after he suffered from rhabdomyolysis after performing a CrossFit workout on December 11, 2005, at Manassas World Gym in Manassas, Virginia, under the trainers' supervision.[157] CrossFit, Inc. was not listed as a defendant in the lawsuit.[156]
CrossFit, Inc. does not dispute that its methodology has the potential to cause rhabdomyolysis.[158][failed verification] The company states that exertional rhabdomyolysis can be found in a wide variety of sports and training populations and argues that its critics have conflated CrossFit's high awareness of rhabdomyolysis with high risk.[24][159] One CrossFit spokesman stated that "ESPN's report on the 53 deaths in US triathlons from 2007 to 2013 should have put the issue to rest."[159]
Since May 2005, CrossFit, Inc. has published several articles about rhabdomyolysis in the company's CrossFit Journal.[160][161][162][163] Three of the articles are included in the CrossFit Manual provided to all prospective trainers.[164]
CrossFit, Inc. has also been criticized for having a "cavalier"[165] attitude towards rhabdomyolysis by promoting a character known as "Uncle Rhabdo" (a cartoon clown dying dramatically—hooked up to a dialysis machine, with his kidneys and intestines falling on the floor).[161] In response to this criticism, Greg Glassman stated, "We introduced (Uncle) Rhabdo because we're honest and believe that full disclosure of risk is the only ethical thing to do."[159][unreliable source?]
Social media controversies
CrossFit, Inc. has been variously criticized and praised for its unorthodox approach to social media.[166][167][168] This approach has included publishing articles and tweets about non-fitness topics (including politics, philosophy, and poetry)[169][failed verification][170] as well as directly interacting with other social media users and critics of the company's program.[2]
On June 4, 2014, CrossFit uploaded a parody video to their Facebook page of Jesus, featuring concepts such as the "Holy Trinity of exercise".[171] Yasmine Hafiz wrote in The Huffington Post that some "viewers are outraged at the disrespectful use of a Christian symbol", with one user asking "on what planet is it comical or encouraged to mock someones belief?"[172][171]
In June 2018, CrossFit fired its chief knowledge officer, Russell Berger, after Berger wrote about the LGBT community on Twitter. Berger's tweet followed the closure of a CrossFit location in Indianapolis due to the backlash it faced after canceling a special LGBT Pride Month workout. Berger wrote on Twitter "As someone who personally believes celebrating 'pride' is a sin, I'd like to personally encourage #CrossFitInfiltrate for standing by their convictions and refusing to host an @indypride workout. The intolerance of the LGBTQ ideology toward any alternative views is mind-blowing." The tweet triggered angry responses denouncing Berger as a bigot and pressuring CEO Glassman for him to be fired; Berger was first placed on unpaid leave, but was later fired by Glassman, who publicly condemned Berger.[173]
In May 2019, CrossFit shuttered its Facebook and Instagram accounts, which had 3.1 million and 2.8 million followers respectively.[174][175] On the company's homepage, the announcement stated that CrossFit was concerned about user privacy and security in the wake of "well-known public complaints about the social-media company that may adversely impact the security and privacy of our global CrossFit community." The company also cited theft of intellectual property and Facebook's collusion with "food and beverage industry interests" as reasons for deactivating its social media accounts.[175]
On June 6, 2020, the founder of CrossFit Greg Glassman tweeted, "It's: FLOYD-19" in response to a tweet from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation at the University of Washington that states, "racism and discrimination are critical public health issues that demand an urgent response."[176] Glassman's tweet was widely panned; many CrossFit-affiliated gyms around the world responded by ending their affiliation, and Reebok also announced that they would end their corporate association.[177] Glassman also hosted a criticized Zoom call with CrossFit gym owners where he propounded conspiracy theories about COVID-19 and claimed that George Floyd had been killed as part of an elaborate cover-up of counterfeiting unrelated to racism.[178] On June 9, 2020, Glassman resigned as CEO[179][180] then two weeks later announced he had put the company up for sale.[181]
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^Guilherme Henrique Mattos Dantas; Rodolfo de Alkmim Moreira Nunes; Rodrigo Gomes de Souza Vale (May 27, 2021). "Case reports of athletes affected by rhabdomyolysis: A systematic review". International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching. 17 (1): 189–196. doi:10.1177/17479541211018597. S2CID236347445.
^ abHenrik C Bäcker; John T Richards; Arne Kienzle; John Cunningham; Karl F Braun (March 1, 2023). "Exertional Rhabdomyolysis in Athletes: Systematic Review and Current Perspectives". Clin J Sport Med. 33 (2): 187–194. doi:10.1097/JSM.0000000000001082. PMID36877581. S2CID257363163.
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