Central Committee of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)

Central Committee of the 15th Congress
The 15th Party Congress; in the foreground Alexei Rykov, Mykola Skrypnyk and Joseph Stalin raising their membership cards.
19 December 1927 – 13 July 1930
Leadership
General Secretary	Joseph Stalin
Second Secretary	Vyacheslav Molotov
Inner-groups	Politburo: 9 full & 10 candidates Secretariat: 8 full & 4 candidates Orgburo: 16 full & 9 candidates
Candidates
Apparatus
No. of departments	11

The Central Committee (CC) composition was elected by the 15th Congress, and sat from 19 December 1927 until 13 July 1930. The CC 1st Plenary Session renewed the composition of the Politburo, Secretariat and the Organizational Bureau (OB) of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks).

Plenums

The CC was not a permanent institution. It convened plenary sessions, of which six CC plenary sessions and two joint CC–Central Control Commission (CCC) plenary sessions were held between the 15th Congress and the 16th Congress. When the CC was not in session, decision-making powers were transferred to inner bodies of the CC itself; the Politburo, Secretariat and Orgburo (none of these bodies were permanent either, but convened several times a months).^[1]

Plenary sessions of the Central Committee

Plenum	Date	Length
1st Plenary Session	19 December 1927	1 day
1st Joint Plenary Session	6–11 April 1928	6 days
2nd Plenary Session	4–12 July 1928	9 days
3rd Plenary Session	16–24 November 1928	9 days
2nd Joint Plenary Session	16–23 April 1929	8 days
4th Plenary Session	29 April 1929	1 day
5th Plenary Session	21 June 1929	1 day
6th Plenary Session	10–17 November 1929	8 days

Apparatus

Individuals employed by Central Committee's bureaus, departments and newspapers made up the apparatus between the 15th Congress and the 16th Congress.^[2] The bureaus and departments were supervised by the Secretariat, and each secretary (member of the Secretariat) supervised a specific department.^[3] The leaders of departments were officially referred to as Heads, while the titles of bureau leaders varied between chairman, first secretary and secretary.^[4]

Central Committee Apparatus of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)

Institution	Leader	Cyrillic	Took office	Left office	Length of tenure	Nationality	Gender
Administrator of Affairs	Timofey Samsonov	Тимофей Самсонов	19 December 1927	13 July 1930	2 years and 206 days	Ukrainian	Male
Agitation, Propaganda and Press Department	Alexander Krinitsky	Александр Криницкий	19 December 1927	19 November 1929	1 year and 335 days	Russian	Male
Agitation, Propaganda and Press Department	Aleksei Stetskii	Алексей Стецкий	19 November 1929	1 May 1930	163 days	Russian	Male
Bolshevik	Nikolay Bukharin	Никола́й Буха́рин	19 December 1927	April 1929	1 year and 103 days	Russian	Male
Bolshevik	Vilhelm Knorin	Вильгельм Кнорин	1930	13 July 1930	1 year and 193 days	Latvian	Male
Culture and Propaganda Department	Aleksei Stetskii	Алексей Стецкий	1 May 1930	13 July 1930	73 days	Russian	Male
Information Department	Lev Roshal	Лев Рошаль	19 December 1927	1928	43 days	Jewish[5][6][7]	Male
Institute of Red Professors	Mikhail Pokrovsky	Михаи́л Покро́вский	19 December 1927	13 July 1930	2 years and 206 days	Russian	Male
Lenin Institute	Ivan Skvortsov-Stepanov	Ива́н Скворцо́в-Степа́нов	19 December 1927	August 1928	256 days	Russian	Male
Lenin Institute	Maximilian Saveliev	Максимилиан Савельев	August 1928	13 July 1930	1 year and 316 days	Russian	Male
Party History Department	Vacant	—	19 December 1927	20 August 1928	245 days	—	—
Pravda	Nikolay Bukharin	Никола́й Буха́рин	19 December 1927	April 1929	1 year and 103 days	Russian	Male
Pravda	Editorial Board	—	April 1929	13 July 1930	1 year and 103 days	—	—
Press Department	Sergei Gusev	Сергей Гусев	19 December 1927	March 1928	103 days	Jewish[8]	Male
Press Department	Nikolay Smirnov	Николай Смирнов	March 1928	May 1928	60 days	Russian	Male
Organizational-Distribution Department	Ivan Moskvin	Иван Москвин	19 December 1927	13 July 1930	2 years and 206 days	Russian	Male
Secret Department	Ivan Tovstukha	Иван Товстуха	19 December 1927	13 July 1930	2 years and 206 days	Ukrainian	Male
Statistical Department	Yelena Smitten	Елена Смиттен	19 December 1927	13 July 1930	2 years and 206 days	Belarusian	Female
Work in the Countryside Department	Karl Bauman	Карл Бауман	19 December 1927	13 July 1930	2 years and 206 days	Latvian	Male
Women's Department	Aleksandra Artyukhina	Елена Смиттен	19 December 1927	13 July 1930	2 years and 206 days	Russian	Female

Composition

Members

Members of the Central Committee of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)

Name	Cyrillic	14th CC	16th CC	Birth	Death	PM	Nationality	Gender	Portrait
Ivan Akulov	Иван Акулов	New	Not	1888	1937	1907	Russian	Male
Andrey Andreyev	Андрей Андреев	Old	Reelected	1895	1971	1914	Russian	Male
Nikolay Antipov	Николай Антипов	Old	Reelected	1894	1938	1912	Russian	Male
Aleksandra Artyukhina	Александра Артюхина	Old	Not	1889	1969	1910	Russian	Female
Aleksei Badayev	Алексей Бадаев	Old	Reelected	1883	1951	1904	Russian	Male
Karl Bauman	Карл Бауман	Old	Reelected	1892	1937	1907	Latvian	Male	—
Andrei Bubnov	Андрей Бубнов	Old	Reelected	1884	1938	1903	Russian	Male
Nikolai Bukharin	Никола́й Буха́рин	Old	Reelected	1888	1938	1906	Russian	Male
Georgy Chicherin	Георгий Чичерин	Old	Not	1872	1936	1918	Russian	Male
Vlas Chubar	Влас Чубар	Old	Reelected	1891	1939	1907	Ukrainian	Male
Mikhail Chudov	Михаил Чудов	Old	Reelected	1893	1937	1913	Russian	Male	—
Alexander Dogadov	Александр Догадов	Old	Candidate	1888	1937	1905	Russian	Male	—
Yan Gamarnik	Ян Гамарник	Candidate	Reelected	1894	1937	1916	Jewish[9]	Male	—
Filipp Goloshchyokin	Филипп Голощёкин	Candidate	Reelected	1876	1941	1903	Jewish[10]	Male
Ivan Kabakov	Иван Кабаков	Old	Reelected	1891	1937	1914	Russian	Male	—
Lazar Kaganovich	Лазарь Каганович	Old	Reelected	1893	1991	1911	Jewish [11][12][13]	Male
Mikhail Kalinin	Михаил Калинин	Old	Reelected	1875	1946	1898	Russian	Male
Kuprian Kirkizh	Куприян Киркиж	Old	Not	1886	1932	1910	Belarusian	Male
Sergey Kirov	Серге́й Ки́ров	Old	Reelected	1886	1934	1904	Russian	Male
Vilhelm Knorin	Вильгельм Кнорин	New	Reelected	1890	1938	1910	Latvian	Male
Nikolay Kolotilov	Николай Колотилов	Old	Reelected	1885	1937	1903	Russian	Male	—
Nikolay Komarov	Николай Комаров	Old	Reelected	1886	1937	1909	Russian	Male
Joseph Kosior	Иосиф Косиор	Candidate	Reelected	1889	1937	1908	Polish	Male
Stanislav Kosior	Станислав Косиор	Old	Reelected	1889	1939	1907	Polish	Male
Vasily Kotov	Василий Котов	Old	Not	1885	1937	1915	Russian	Male	—
Nadezhda Krupskaya	Наде́жда Кру́пская	New	Reelected	1869	1939	1898	Russian	Female
Gleb Krzhizhanovsky	Глеб Кржижано́вский	Old	Reelected	1872	1959	1898	Polish-German [14][a]	Male
Nikolay Kubyak	Николай Кубяк	Old	Reelected	1881	1937	1898	Russian	Male
Yegor Kulikov	Егор Куликов	Old	Not	1891	1943	1910	Russian	Male	—
Valerian Kuybyshev	Валериан Куйбышев	Old	Reelected	1888	1935	1904	Russian	Male
Emanuel Kviring	Эммануил Квиринг	Old	Reelected	1888	1937	1912	Volga German	Male
Ivan Lepse	Иван Лепсе	Old	Died	1889	1929	1906	Latvian	Male	—
Semyon Lobov	Семён Лобов	Old	Reelected	1888	1937	1913	Russian	Male	—
Isidore Lyubimov	Исидор Любимов	Candidate	Reelected	1882	1937	1902	Russian	Male	—
Dmitry Manuilsky	Дмитро Мануїльський	Old	Reelected	1883	1959	1903	Ukrainian	Male
Alexei Medvedev	Алексей Медведев	Old	Not	1884	1937	1904	Russian	Male
Vyacheslav Menzhinsky	Вячеслав Менжинский	New	Not	1874	1934	1902	Polish	Male
Vasily Mikhailov	Василий Михайлов	Old	Candidate	1894	1937	1915	Russian	Male
Anastas Mikoyan	Анастас Микоян	Old	Reelected	1895	1978	1915	Armenian	Male
Vyacheslav Molotov	Вячеслав Молотов	Old	Reelected	1890	1986	1906	Russian	Male
Ivan Moskvin	Иван Москвин	Candidate	Reelected	1890	1937	1911	Russian	Male
Georgy Oppokov	Георгий Оппоков	Candidate	Reelected	1888	1938	1903	Russian	Male
Mamia Orakhelashvili	Мамия Орахелашвили	Old	Reelected	1888	1937	1903	Georgian	Male
Grigory Petrovsky	Григо́рій Петро́вський	Old	Reelected	1878	1958	1898	Ukrainian	Male
Osip Piatnitsky	Осип Пятницкий	New	Reelected	1882	1938	1898	Jewish[15]	Male
Pavel Postyshev	Григо́рій Петро́вський	Candidate	Reelected	1887	1939	1904	Russian	Male
Jānis Rudzutaks	Ян Рудзутак	Old	Reelected	1887	1938	1906	Latvian	Male
Moisey Rukhimovich	Моисей Рухимович	Old	Reelected	1889	1937	1913	Jewish[16]	Male
Ivan Rumyantsev	Иван Румянцев	Old	Reelected	1886	1937	1905	Russian	Male
Alexei Rykov	Алексей Рыков	Old	Reelected	1881	1938	1899	Russian	Male
Vasily Schmidt	Сергей Чуцкаев	Old	Candidate	1886	1938	1905	German[17]	Male
Isaak Schwartz	Исаак Шварц	Old	Reelected	1879	1951	1899	Jewish[18]	Male
Nikolay Shvernik	Николай Шверник	Old	Reelected	1888	1970	1905	Russian	Male
Mykola Skrypnyk	Микола Скрипник	Candidate	Reelected	1872	1933	1898	Ukrainian	Male
Ivan Skvortsov-Stepanov	Ива́н Скворцо́в-Степа́нов	Old	Died	1878	1928	1898	Russian	Male
Alexander Smirnov	Александр Смирнов	Old	Reelected	1878	1938	1898	Russian	Male
Grigori Sokolnikov	Григорий Сокольников	Old	Candidate	1888	1938	1905	Jewish[19][20]	Male
Joseph Stalin	Ио́сиф Ста́лин	Old	Reelected	1878	1953	1898	Georgian	Male
Aleksei Stetskii	Алексей Стецкий	New	Reelected	1896	1938	1915	Russian	Male
Konstantin Strievsky	Константин Стриевский	Candidate	Reelected	1885	1938	1902	Belarusian	Male	—
Daniil Sulimov	Даниил Сулимов	Old	Reelected	1890	1937	1905	Russian	Male
Sergei Syrtsov	Сергей Сырцов	Candidate	Reelected	1893	1937	1913	Russian	Male
Aleksandr Tolokontsev	Александр Толоконцев	Old	Reelected	1889	1937	1914	Russian	Male	—
Mikhail Tomsky	Михаил Томский	Old	Reelected	1880	1936	1904	Russian	Male
Alexander Tsiurupa	Алекса́ндр Цюру́па	Old	Died	1870	1928	1898	Ukrainian	Male
Fyodor Ugarov	Фёдор Угаров	Candidate	Reelected	1885	1932	1905	Russian	Male	—
Nikolai Uglanov	Николай Угланов	Old	Not	1886	1937	1907	Russian	Male
Konstantin Ukhanov	Константин Уханов	Old	Reelected	1891	1937	1907	Russian	Male
Kliment Voroshilov	Климент Ворошилов	Old	Reelected	1881	1969	1903	Russian	Male
Isaak Zelensky	Исаак Зеленский	Old	Reelected	1890	1937	1906	Jewish[21][22]	Male
Ivan Zhukov	Иван Жуков	Old	Reelected	1889	1937	1909	Russian	Male	—

Candidates

Candidate Members of the Central Committee of the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)

Name	Cyrillic	14th CC	16th CC	Birth	Death	PM	Nationality	Gender	Portrait
Pyotr Alexeyev	Пётр Алексеев	New	Member	1893	1937	1914	Russian	Male	—
Naum Antselovich	Наум Анцелович	New	Not	1888	1952	1905	Jewish[16]	Male
Pyotr Baranov	Пётр Баранов	New	Candidate	1892	1933	1912	Russian	Male
Nikolai Bryukhanov	Николай Брюханов	New	Candidate	1878	1938	1902	Russian	Male
Nikolai Chaplin	Николай Чаплин	Candidate	Candidate	1902	1938	1919	Russian	Male	—
Sergey Chutskayev	Сергей Чуцкаев	New	Candidate	1876	1944	1903	Russian	Male	—
Mikhail Chuvyrin	Михаил Чувырин	New	Member	1883	1947	1903	Russian	Male	—
Robert Eikhe	Роберт Эйхе	Candidate	Member	1890	1940	1906	Latvian	Male
Shalva Eliava	Шалва Элиава	New	Candidate	1883	1937	1904	Georgian	Male
Konstantin Gey	Константин Гей	Candidate	Candidate	1896	1939	1916	German-Russian[b]	Male
Fyodor Gryadinsky	Фёдор Грядинский	New	Candidate	1893	1938	1912	Russian	Male
Akmal Ikramov	Акмаль Икрамов	Candidate	Candidate	1898	1938	1918	Uzbek	Male
Vladimir Ivanov	Владимир Иванов	Candidate	Candidate	1893	1938	1915	Russian	Male
Anna Kalgyna	Анна Калыгина	Candidate	Candidate	1895	1937	1915	Russian	Female	—
Grigory Kaminsky	Григорий Каминский	Candidate	Candidate	1895	1938	1913	Jewish[23][24]	Male
Mendel Khatayevich	Мендель Хатаевич	New	Member	1893	1937	1913	Jewish[16]	Male
Aleksei Kiselyov	Алексей Киселёв	Candidate	Candidate	1879	1937	1898	Russian	Male
Ivan Klimenko	Иван Клименко	Candidate	Candidate	1891	1937	1912	Russian	Male
Ivan Kodatsky	Иван Кодацкий	Candidate	Member	1893	1937	1914	Russian	Male
Philemon Kolgushkin	Филимон Колгушкин	New	Removed	1887	1937	1905	Russian	Male	—
Taras Kondratyev	Тарас Кондратьев	Candidate	Not	1892	1937	1913	Russian	Male	—
Alexander Krinitsky	Александр Криницкий	Candidate	Candidate	1894	1937	1915	Russian	Male
Fyodor Leonov	Фёдор Леонов	New	Member	1892	1938	1914	Russian	Male	—
Filipp Lokotskov	Филипп Локацков	New	Not	1881	1937	1904	Russian	Male	—
Vissarion Lominadze	Виссарион Ломинадзе	Candidate	Member	1897	1935	1917	Georgian	Male
Solomon Lozovsky	Соломон Лозовский	New	Candidate	1892	1952	1901	Jewish[16]	Male
Alexander Markov	Александр Марков	Candidate	Not	1877	1935	1898	Russian	Male	—
Valery Mezhlauk	Валерий Межлаук	New	Candidate	1893	1938	1917	Latvian	Male
Mikhail Mikhailov-Ivanov	Михаил Михайлов-Иванов	New	Candidate	1894	1931	1913	Russian	Male	—
Levon Mirzoyan	Левон Мирзоян	New	Candidate	1887	1939	1917	Armenian	Male
Grigory Melnichansky	Григорий Мельничанский	Candidate	Not	1886	1937	1902	Jewish[25]	Male	—
Gazanfar Musabekov	Газанфар Мусабеков	Candidate	Candidate	1888	1938	1918	Azerbaijani	Male
Klavdiya Nikolayeva	Клавдия Николаева	Candidate	Candidate	1893	1944	1909	Russian	Female
Ivan Nosov	Иван Носов	Candidate	Member	1888	1937	1905	Russian	Male	—
Mikhail Oshvintsev	Михаил Ошвинцев	New	Candidate	1889	1939	1917	Russian	Male
Valerian Osinsky	Валериан Оболенский	Candidate	Candidate	1882	1938	1907	Russian	Male
Vladimir Polonsky	Владимир Полонский	Old	Candidate	1893	1937	1912	Russian	Male
Konstantin Rumyantsev	Константин Румянцев	Candidate	Candidate	1889	1939	1916	Russian	Male	—
Kuzma Ryndin	Кузьма Рындин	Candidate	Member	1893	1938	1915	Russian	Male	—
Martemyan Ryutin	Мартемья́н Рю́тин	New	Not	1890	1937	1914	Russian	Male
Boris Semenov	Борис Семёнов	Candidate	Candidate	1890	1937	1907	Russian	Male	—
Alexander Serebrovsky	Александр Серебровский	Candidate	Candidate	1884	1938	1903	Russian	Male
Sergey Sobolev	Александр Серебровский	New	Not	1900	1939	1918	Russian	Male	—
Vasily Stroganov	Василий Строганов	New	Not	1888	1938	1905	Russian	Male	—
Kirill Sukhomlin	Кирилл Сухомлин	New	Candidate	1886	1938	1905	Russian	Male
Anton Tsikhon	Антон Цихон	New	Member	1887	1939	1906	Belausian	Male	—
Józef Unszlicht	Ио́сиф У́ншлихт	Candidate	Candidate	1879	1938	1907	Jewish[26]	Male
Mikhail Uryvayev	Михаил Урываев	Candidate	Candidate	1887	1937	1917	Russian	Male	—
Iosif Vareikis	Иосиф Варейкис	Candidate	Member	1894	1938	1913	Lithuanian	Male	—
Andrei Zhdanov	Андрей Жданов	Candidate	Member	1896	1948	1915	Russian	Male

References

Notes

1. His father was Polish and his mother German
2. His father was German and his mother Russian

General

Plenary sessions, apparatus heads, ethnicity (by clicking on the individual names on "The Central Committee elected by the XVth Congress of the CPSU (b) 12.19.1927 members" reference), the Central Committee full- and candidate membership, Politburo membership, Secretariat membership and Orgburo membership were taken from these sources:

• Staff writer. "Съезды, конференции, пленумы и заседания РСДРП – РСДРП(б) – РКП(б) – ВКП(б) – КПСС" [Congresses, conferences, plenary meetings and meetings of the RSDLP – RSDLP (b) – RCP (b) – AUCP (b) – CPSU] (in Russian). knowbysight.info. Retrieved 22 August 2015.
• Staff writer. "Персональный состав Центрального комитета РСДРП – РСДРП(б) – РКП(б) – ВКП(б) – КПСС" [Membership of the Central Committee of the RSDLP – RSDLP (b) – RCP (b) – AUCP (b) – CPSU] (in Russian). knowbysight.info. Retrieved 22 August 2015.
• Staff writer. "Центральный Комитет, избранный XV-м съездом ВКП(б) 19.12.1927, члены" [The Central Committee elected by the XV th Congress of the CPSU (b) 12.19.1927 members] (in Russian). knowbysight.info. Retrieved 22 August 2015.
• Staff writer (19 June 2008). "ЕВРЕИ И ВЛАСТЬ В РОССИИ (1917-1924 гг.)" [Jews and Power in Russia (1917–1924 biennum)] (in Russian). LDN - приватное собрание книг. Retrieved 22 August 2015.
• Staff writer. "Узкий состав ЦК РСДРП(б) – Политическое бюро ЦК РСДРП(б)—Бюро ЦК РСДРП(б) – РКП(б)—Политическое бюро ЦК РКП(б) – ВКП(б)—Президиум – Политическое бюро ЦК КПСС" [The narrow composition of the RSDLP (b)—Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (B)—The Bureau of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) – RCP (B)—Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the RCP (b) – AUCP (b)—the Presidium – Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the CPSU] (in Russian). Retrieved 21 June 2015.
• Staff writer. "Секретариат ЦК РСДРП - РКП(б) - ВКП(б) - КПСС" [Secretariat of the Central Committee of the RSDLP (b) – RCP (b) – AUCP (b) – CPSU] (in Russian). Retrieved 21 June 2015.
• Staff writer. "Организационное бюро РКП(б) - ВКП(б)" [Organizational Bureau of the RCP (b) – AUCP (b)] (in Russian). Retrieved 21 June 2015.

Bibliography

• Fainsod, Merle; Hough, Jerry F. (1979). How the Soviet Union is Governed. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674410305.
• Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1984). "Chapter 3: Statute of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union". In Simons, Williams; White, Stephens (eds.). The Party Statutes of the Communist World. Law in Eastern Europe. Brill Publishers. pp. 413–435. ISBN 9024729750.

Sources

1. Simons & White 1984, pp. 423–425.
2. Fainsod & Hough 1979, p. 410.
3. Fainsod & Hough 1979, pp. 410–411 & 417–419.
4. Fainsod & Hough 1979, pp. 417–419.
5. "Рошаль, Лев Борисович" [Roshal, Lev Borisovich]. Кадровый состав органов государственной безопасности СССР. 1935−1939. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
6. "Рошаль Лев Борисович (1896)" [Roshal Lev Borisovich (1896)]. Открытый список. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
7. "Рошаль Лев Борисович + 28.01.1940" [Roshal Lev Borisovich + 28.01.1940]. Расстрелянное поколение. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
8. Riga, Liliana (2012). The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60, 80 and 303.
9. Charny, Vitaly (1995). "Jewish Encyclopedia of Russia".
10. "Jewish Encyclopedia of Russia". JewishGen Belarus SIG. 1995. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
11. Lindemann, Albert S. (1997). Esau's Tears: Modern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews. Cambridge University Press. p. 453.
12. Riga, Liliana (2012). The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60, 70 and 303.
13. "Kaganovich, Lazar Moiseyevich". Jewish Virtual Library. The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved 8 November 2023.
14. "Глеб Максимилианович Кржижановский" [Gleb Maksimilianovich Krzhizhanovsky]. ХРОНОС.
15. Riga, Liliana (2012). The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60, 80 and 303.
16. "Jewish Encyclopedia of Russia". JewishGen Belarus SIG. 1995. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
17. Ivkin, V.I. Государственная власть СССР. Высшие органы власти и управления и их руководители. 1923—1991 гг. Историко-биографический справочни (in Russian). Moscow. p. 605.
18. "Jewish Encyclopedia of Russia". JewishGen Belarus SIG. 1995. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
19. Riga, Liliana (2012). The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60 and 305.
20. "Сокольников Григорий Яковлевич". www.hrono.ru.
21. Riga, Liliana (2012). The Bolsheviks and the Russian Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 60 and 305.
22. "Jewish Encyclopedia of Russia". JewishGen Belarus SIG. 1995.
23. "Lists.memo.ru". Retrieved 10 November 2023.
24. Charny, Vitaly (1995). "Jewish Encyclopedia of Russia". JewishGen Belarus SIG. Retrieved 18 November 2023.
25. Charny, Vitaly (1995). "Jewish Encyclopedia of Russia". Archived from the original on 11 November 2023.
26. Mendes, Philip (19 May 2014). Jews and the Left: The Rise and Fall of a Political Alliance (2014 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 136. ISBN 978-1-137-00830-5.