Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan

See also: Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea

Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan refers to opposition, hostility, hatred, distrust, fear, and general dislike of Korean people or culture in Japan. Relations between Japan and Korea can date back to nearly two millennia, mostly defined through cultural exchanges and diplomatic trade. However, major events involving military aggression and political disputes play a key factor in harboring negative sentiment.^[1] Much of the current anti-Korean sentiment stems from conservative politicians and far-right groups.

Ancient era

Relations between ancient Japan and Korea date back to at least the 4th century, according to historical records of ancient China, Japan, and Korea. According to the Book of Sui, Silla and Baekje greatly valued relations with the Kofun-period Wa and the Korean kingdoms made diplomatic efforts to maintain their good standing with the Japanese.^[2] The Samguk sagi (Chronicles of the Three Kingdoms) reported that Baekje and Silla sent their princes as hostages to the Yamato court in exchange for military support to continue their military campaigns; King Asin of Baekje sent his son (Jeonji) in 397,^[3] and King Silseong of Silla sent his son Misaheun in 402.^[4] Hogong, from Japan, helped to found Silla.^[5] According to the Nihon Shoki, Silla was invaded by an army from Wa (Japan) in the third century.^[6] In Korea, inscriptions on the Gwanggaeto Stele state that the king of Goguryeo assisted Silla when it was invaded by the Wa, and punished Baekje for allying with the Wa. The stela also records Wa excursions in the early 5th century.^[7]

During the Mongol conquests of the 13th and 14th centuries, the Goryeo dynasty of Korea became a vassal state. Under Mongolian influence, Korean envoys were sent to Japan to declare submission to the Mongols, only to be rejected.^[8][9] In response, the emperor Kublai Khan launched two separate invasions in 1274 and 1281. Although both attempts to conquer Japan failed, anti-Korean sentiment had risen, due to major involvements of Korean troops participating in the invasion.^{[citation needed]}

During the Joseon period, Wokou pirate raids on Korean soil were frequent, which would eventually form the basis of hatred between the two sides. Ultimately in 1592, Japanese samurai armies invaded Korea on the orders of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The Imjin Wars continued until 1598, when the Japanese left, and took with them a number of Korea craftsmen.^{[citation needed]}

19th-20th century

Further information: Kantō Massacre, Korea under Japanese rule, and Japanese war crimes

During the Meiji Restoration of the late 19th century, Japan underwent Westernization and took opportunities to exploit from China, who was unable to defend itself from Western forces. Because Korea acted as part of China's tributary state, Japan want to exert further influence by presenting Korea with the Treaty of Gangwha, forcing Korea to provide extraterritorial rights to Japanese citizens in the country, open three ports—Busan, Incheon, and Wonsan—to Japanese and foreign trade, and establish its independence from China in foreign relations. For the next couple of decades, the Empire of Japan would forcefully remove any foreign influence on Korea to finally annexing the country in 1910.^[10] Japan maintained control of Korea until the end of World War II in 1945.

Koreans in Japan about to be stabbed by Japanese vigilantes with bamboo spears immediately after the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake (see Kantō Massacre)

During the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, widespread damage occurred in a region with a significant Korean population, and much of the local Japanese overreacted to rumors which spread after the earthquake.^[11] Within the aftermath of the event, there was a common perception amongst some groups of Japanese that ethnic Koreans were poisoning wells, eventually setting off a set of killings against Koreans, where Japanese would use the shibboleth of ba bi bu be bo (ばびぶべぼ) to distinguish ethnic Koreans from Japanese, as it was assumed that Koreans would be unable to pronounce the line correctly, and instead pronounce them as [pa, pi, pu, pe, po].^[12] All people who failed the test were killed,^{[citation needed]} which caused many ethnic Chinese, also unable to correctly pronounce the shibboleth, to be indiscriminately killed in large numbers. Other shibboleths used were "jū-go-en, go-jū-ssen" (15円 50銭, 15 yen, 50 sen) and "gagigugego" (がぎぐげご), where Japanese people pronounce initial g as [ɡ] and medial g as [ŋ] (such a distinction is dying out in recent years), whereas Koreans pronounce the two sounds as [k] and [ɡ] respectively.^{[citation needed]}

Post-WWII history

Right wing demonstration criticizing South Korea over the Liancourt Rocks dispute in February 2022

In April 2014, several anti-Korean stickers were found posted at 13 locations along the Shikoku Pilgrimage route; the stickers were denounced by a spokesman from the Shikoku 88 Temple Pilgrimage Association.^[13]

In 2021, a Japanese man set fire to an empty house in a Korean village in Utoro district, Uji. The fire spread to other properties and damaged them. He attributed his actions to his hatred of Korean people, which was in part sparked by online rhetoric. He was sentenced to four years in prison.^[14][15]

North Korea

There is also much concern in Japan regarding North Korea and its nuclear and long-range missile capabilities, as a result of missile tests in 1993, 1998 and 2006 and an underground nuclear test in 2006. There are also controversies regarding North Korean abductions of Japanese, where Japanese citizens were abducted by North Korean agents during the 1970s and 1980s.^[16]

Chongryon, the North Korea-affiliated organization for ethnic Koreans in Japan, has continually drawn controversy from the Japanese public.^[17]

"Anti-Korean Wave" protest against Fuji Television's broadcasting of Korean media in Odaiba, Tokyo, 2011 (Fuji TV protest demonstration [ja]).

South Korea

Much of the anti-Korean sentiment present today however deals with contemporary attitudes.^{[citation needed]} During the 2002 FIFA World Cup, Japanese and Korean supporters clashed with one another. Both sides were also known to post racist messages against each other on online bulletins. There were also disputes regarding how the event was to be hosted, as a result of the rivalry between the two nations.

The Korean Wave, or the exportation of South Korean pop culture, has created some negative feelings among pockets of Japanese society. Many Japanese citizens with conservative views and some right-wing nationalist groups have organized anti-Korean Wave demonstrations via 2channel. On 9 August 2011, more than 2,000 protesters demonstrated in front of Fuji TV's headquarters in Odaiba, Tokyo against the broadcasting of Korean dramas.^[18] Earlier, in July 2011, Japanese former actor Sousuke Takaoka was fired from his agency, Stardust Promotion, for tweeting criticisms against the influx of Korean dramas.^[19] The general perception of Koreans on 2channel is negative, with users depicting them as a violent, unethical, and irrational people who are a 'threat' to Japan.^[20] Users often reference stereotypes of Koreans, such as the use of dogs in Korean cuisine.^[21]

The United States Institute of Peace analyzed that the dispute between Japan-South Korea dispute from anti-Korean xenophobia. According to their analysis, Japan's repeated historical negativism, territorial disputes, and failure of diplomatic agreements are also manifestations of anti-Korean xenophobia. Many Japanese people perceive Koreans to be inferior and untrustworthy.^[22]

Kenkan books

In Japanese bookstores, Kenkan (嫌韓, "Hatred for [South] Koreans") books are placed separately, and Kenkan is recognized as a book genre. On the other hand, there are no Hyomil (혐일; 嫌日; lit. Hatred for Japanese) books in South Korean bookstores.^[23] South Korean media point out that Japan's "Hate of [South] Korean" cannot be identified with South Korea's "anti-Japan" (반일). In South Korea, "anti-Japan" (반일; 反日) are distinguished from "Hate of Japanese" (혐일; 嫌日); "Anti-Japan" ostracizes Japan in an anti-imperialistic, and "Hate of Japanese" ostracizes Japan in all contexts, including nationality.^[24] However, in Japan, "anti-[South] Korea" (反韓) and "Hate of [South] Korean" (嫌韓) are not strictly distinguished. There is Kenkan racist hate groups (ex. Zaitokukai and other Uyoku dantai) in Japan, but there is no Hyomil racist hate groups in South Korea. Therefore, the South Korean media opposes the Japanese people's comparison of South Korea's "反日" and Japan's "嫌韓" on the same line.^[23][25]

Manga Kenkanryu (often referred to as "Hating the Korean Wave Manga") by Sharin Yamano discusses these issues while making many other arguments and claims against Korea.^{[citation needed]}

Territorial dispute

Main article: Liancourt Rocks dispute

The territorial dispute over Liancourt Rocks also fuels outrage.

2019–2020 Japan–South Korea trade dispute

Main article: 2019–2020 Japan–South Korea trade dispute

Historical revisionism

South Korean media have accused Japanese people of continuing to support historical revisionism against Korean victims, apologizing for Chinese victims in the World War II issue of Japanese war crimes. This is also related to the fact that Chinese people and Japanese people have racial privileges over Koreans, and the difference in national power between China and South Korea.^[26][27]

Comfort women issue

Further information: Comfort woman

Except for some left-wing socialist political parties (mainly Social Democratic Party and Japanese Communist Party), major Japanese politicians and political parties often have historical revisionist perceptions of the comfort women issue. Fumio Kishida has called on the German government to remove the Statue of Peace in Berlin, as it has caused considerable controversy in South Korea.^[28][29] The liberal Constitutional Democratic Party of Japan, as well as the conservative Liberal Democratic Party, have also called on the South Korean government to remove the Statue of Peace,^[30] with even suggesting that there was no evidence to indicate that Japanese authorities coerced Korean women into sexual slavery.^[31]

Japanese textbook revisionism

Main article: Japanese history textbook controversies

On June 26, 1982, the textbook screening process in Japan came under scrutiny when the media of Japan and its neighboring countries gave extensive coverage to changes required by the Minister of Education. Experts from the ministry sought to soften textbook references to Japanese aggression before and during World War II. The Japanese invasion of China in 1937, for example, was modified to "advance". Passages describing the fall of Nanking justified the Japanese atrocities by describing the acts as a result of Chinese provocations. Pressure from China successfully led the Ministry of Education to adopt a new authorization criterion - the "Neighboring Country Clause" (近隣諸国条項) - stating: "textbooks ought to show understanding and seek international harmony in their treatment of modern and contemporary historical events involving neighboring Asian countries."^[32]

In 2006, Japanese textbooks stated that the Liancourt Rocks is Japanese territory. This island is disputed territory claimed by both Japan and South Korea. The head of the South Korean Ministry of Education, Kim Shin-il, sent a letter of protest to Bunmei Ibuki, the Minister of Education, on May 9, 2007.^[33] In a speech marking the 88th anniversary of the March 1 Independence Movement, South Korean President Roh Moo-hyun called for Japan to correct their school textbooks on controversial topics ranging from "inhumane rape of comfort women" to "the Korean ownership of the Liancourt Rocks".^[34]

Politics

Further information: Uyoku dantai and Nippon Kaigi

The Hankyoreh, a liberal newspaper in South Korea, denounced right-wing nationalism led by Shinzo Abe and Nippon Kaigi as "anti-Korean nationalism", in its English column.^[35] There were suspicions that Shinzo Abe provided support to anti-Korean^[36] ultra-nationalist kindergartens.^[37]

Almost all major South Korean media outlets point out that the Liberal Democratic Party and its politicians express anti-Korean sentiment, and that the party's main support base is "Hatred for [South] Koreans".^[38][39][40]

Some right-wing groups in Japan today have targeted ethnic Koreans living within Japan. One such group, known as Zaitokukai, is organized by members on the internet, and has led street demonstrations against Korean schools.^[41]

On March 27, 2010, on the centennial of Japan–Korean annexation, Yukio Edano, then Japanese Minister of State for Government Revitalization, stated that "The invasion and colonization and China and Korea was historically inevitable ... since China and Korea could not modernize themselves". Yukio Edano is known as a liberal politician in Japan.^[42]

Japan's former prime minister Shinzo Abe was also criticized by some experts for encouraging anti-Korean xenophobia in Japanese society,^[43] with many South Koreans perceiving Shinzo Abe as an extreme right-wing politician, far more than Donald Trump.^{[43][44][45][46]} He was often called "Trump before Trump" outside of Japan.^[43][47]

In the South Korean media, most Japanese people and almost all major Japanese media criticize the view of South Korean politics for being biased and for portraying or loathing South Korean liberals in a negative way.^[48][49][a] According to Korean media, even the Asahi Shimbun, known in Japan as a Japanese liberal media outlet, reports on the South Korean liberal Moon Jae-in government using biased and insulting expressions.^[50][51]

According to Michael J. Green in January 2022, presidential candidates in the 2022 South Korean presidential election are willing to improve relations with Japan, but Japanese political leaders have analyzed that they are not.^[52]

See also

• Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan
• History of Japan–Korea relations
• Japan–Korea disputes

Notes

1. Most South Korean liberals take the view that the Japanese government should provide proper individual compensation for the South Korean victims of Japanese war crimes. In contrast, many Japanese take the view that the compensation issue has already been closed due to the Treaty on Basic Relations Between Japan and the Republic of Korea. This is an element of the Japan-Korea conflict.

References

1. Tong, Kurt W, Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan and its effects on Korea-Japan trade, Center for International Studies, MIT Japan Program, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1996
2. Chinese History Record Book of Sui, Vol. 81, Liezhuan 46 : 隋書 東夷伝 第81巻列伝46 : 新羅、百濟皆以倭為大國，多珍物，並敬仰之，恆通使往來 "Silla and Baekje both take Wa to be a great country, with many rare and precious things; also [Silla and Baekje] respect and look up to them, and regularly send embassies there." [1]"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2004-12-21. Retrieved 2006-04-29.
3. Korean History Record Samguk Sagi : 三國史記 新羅本紀 : 元年 三月 與倭國通好 以奈勿王子未斯欣爲質 [2]
4. Korean History Record Samguk Sagi : 三國史記 百済本紀 : 六年夏五月 王與倭國結好 以太子腆支爲質 秋七月大閱於漢水之南　"아신왕 - 삼국사기 백제본기- 디지털한국학". Archived from the original on 2008-05-12. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
5. Korean History Record Samguk Sagi :三國史記 卷第一 新羅本紀第一 始祖赫居世, 瓠公者 未詳其族姓 本倭人
6. Sakamoto (1967:336-340)
7. Mohan, Pankaj N (2004). "Rescuing a Stone from Nationalism: A Fresh Look at the Kwanggaeto Stele of Koguryo". Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies. 1: 89–115.
8. 元寇 (in Japanese). Japan Knowledge. Archived from the original on 5 October 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
9. "Joint project celebrating the 50th anniversary of Japan-Mongolia diplomatic relations. Relations between Japan and Mongolia in the 13th century". National Archives of Japan. Archived from the original on 25 August 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2023.
10. "Treaty of Annexation". USC-UCLA Joint East Asian Studies Center. Archived from the original on 11 February 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
11. Weiner, Michael A. (1989). The origins of the Korean community in Japan, 1910–1923. Manchester: Manchester University Press. pp. 164–188. ISBN 978-0-7190-2987-5.
12. Cybriwsky, Roman (1991). Tokyo: The Changing Profile of an Urban Giant. London: Belhaven Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-85293-054-7.
13. "Anti-Korean stickers posted at several points along Shikoku pilgrimage route". Japan Today. April 11, 2014. Archived from the original on April 6, 2022.
14. "Man given 4 years in prison for arson in Korean community in Kyoto". Kyodo News+. August 30, 2022. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
15. Tokunaga, Takeshiro (August 30, 2022). "Man gets 4 years in prison for arson in ethnic Korean district". The Asahi Shimbun. Retrieved 2023-09-19.
16. "Abductions of Japanese Citizens by North Korea". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Retrieved 2020-11-27.
17. Tetsuaki, Otaki (22 November 2022). "Students at Korean schools harassed over missile launches". The Asahi Shimbun. Retrieved 2023-05-05.
18. "Japan's alt-right groups hold rallies vs. Korean pop culture". The Dong-a Ilbo. 9 August 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
19. "Hundreds of Japanese Protest Against Korean Wave". The Chosun Ilbo. 9 August 2011. Archived from the original on 12 September 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2011.
20. Rumi Sakamoto (March 7, 2011). "'Koreans, Go Home!' Internet Nationalism in Contemporary Japan as a Digitally Mediated Subculture". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. University of Auckland.
21. Mclelland, Mark (December 2008). "'Race' on the Japanese internet: discussing Korea and Koreans on '2-channeru'". New Media and Society. 10 (6): 811–829. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.691.4872. doi:10.1177/1461444808096246. S2CID 10037117.
22. "How to Address the Racism at the Heart of Japan-South Korea Tensions". United States Institute of Peace. 17 January 2023. Retrieved 2 May 2023. Anti-Korean racism is at the heart of historic and unresolved tensions between Japan and South Korea. It will be near impossible to resolve disputes like the comfort women issue without addressing this racism. This is because the difficulty in reaching a consensus on the Japanese side often derives from the underlying tendency among many Japanese to view Koreans as "inferior" and "untrustworthy." U.S. actors, including officials, businesses and academics, should understand the consequences of the important role they have played in perpetuating such prejudice and help right this wrong. ... We tend to think of Korean-Japanese tensions in terms of topic areas, such as Japan's recurring historical denialism, the territorial dispute and the failure of diplomatic arrangements. But these tensions are largely manifestations of racism, not the cause of it, and they will persist as long as racism itself remains unaddressed.
23. ""아니, 이게 없다니…" 한국 서점 둘러보고 깜짝 놀란 일본 정치평론가". 중앙일보. 2017-07-12. Retrieved 2023-02-25.
24. "일본인 폭행·일본 차량 훼손 사건에 '혐일' 우려 목소리↑…"한국사회 전반적 분위기 아냐"". 투데이신문. 2019-08-28. Retrieved 2023-04-29.
25. "일본의 혐한, 한국의 반일". 한겨레. 2016-10-07. Retrieved 2022-01-22.
26. "중국 노동자 피해보상 미쓰비시, 한국 피해자는 외면하나". 연합뉴스. 24 July 2015. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
27. 일, 강제노역 사과 중국에만···반크 "사도광산 유네스코 등재 반대". Kyunghyang Shinmun (in Korean). 23 July 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2022.
28. "기시다, 독일 총리에 소녀상 철거 요청…"반응 안 좋아"(종합2보)" [Kishida called on the German Chancellor to remove the Statue of Peace... Kishida said, ""[German Chancellor] did not respond well."]. 연합뉴스. 11 May 2022.
29. "일본 극우, 도쿄에서 '위안부 피해자 모욕' 행사 개최 ... "짐승만도 못한 짓" 비판". 경향신문. 27 May 2022.
30. "화이트리스트 복원도 적반하장…일본 "한국 자세에 달렸다"". Kyunghyang Shinmun (in Korean). 17 March 2023. Archived from the original on 19 March 2023. 제1야당인 입헌민주당의 이즈미 겐타 대표는 이날 윤 대통령과 만나 한·일 갈등 현안인 '레이더-초계기' 문제와 소녀상 건립 문제를 언급했다고 밝혔다. 입헌민주당은 그동안 소녀상 철거를 요구해왔다.
31. "Yoon visits Japan, seeking to restore ties amid N Korea threat". Al Jazeera. 16 March 2023. Archived from the original on 21 March 2023.
32. Murai Atsushi, "Abolish the Textbook Authorization System", Japan Echo, (Aug. 2001): 28.
33. "Ed. Minister Protests Distortions in Japanese Textbooks" Archived May 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Chosun Ilbo, May 10, 2007.
34. "Roh Calls on Japan to Respect Historical Truth" Archived March 13, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Chosun Ilbo, Mar.2, 2007.
35. "How Abe and the ruling class of Japan have stirred up anti-Korean nationalism". The Hankyoreh. 5 August 2019. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
36. "Vox - Inside North Korea's bubble in Japan (Timestamp 11:30)". YouTube. 31 October 2017.
37. "Trump signs sanctions bill against Russia as relations worsen". Los Angeles Times. 31 August 2017. Retrieved 25 February 2023.
38. ""일본 전철에 한글 표기는 낭비" 日 정치인 혐한 트윗". YTN. 22 July 2019.
39. ""한국은 약속이라는 개념이 없다"… 日정부, 혐한 분위기 팽배". 조선일보. 15 February 2021.
40. ""일방적 구애" 대일 저자세 외교…과정도 결과도 부적절했다". 한겨레. 23 September 2022. 기시다 총리로선 확실한 지지기반인 '반한·혐한' 세력의 반대를 무릅쓰고, 한-일 관계 개선을 위한 정상회담에 나설 국내 정치적 동기가 약하다는 뜻이다.
41. Martin Fackler, August 28, 2010, New Dissent in Japan Is Loudly Anti-Foreign, New York Times
42. "[서울신문] [사설] 되풀이되는 日 고위직 망언 구제불능인가". Seoul Shinmun. 29 March 2010. Retrieved January 2, 2016.
43. Adelstein, Jake (8 July 2022). "Shinzo Abe Was 'Trump Before Trump'—Except He Pulled It Off". The Daily Beast. Archived from the original on 8 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022. His authoritarian legacy will live on for decades to come, and in retaining power, he even trumped Trump. ... During his exile from power, Abe and his cabinet members allied with anti-Korean and other xenophobic groups. Abe drummed up anti-Korean sentiment to bolster his support, and made sure his allies did the dog-whistles while he kept his hands clean. While Trump portrayed immigrants as the boogeyman threatening Japan; Abe latched onto deep-rooted anti-Korean sentiment, towards both the Korean residents of Japan who stayed after the war and citizens of South and North Korea, former colonies of Japan. He appointed Eriko Yamatani, a woman closely associated with the flamingly anti-Korean group Zaitoku-Kai, to be the head of the National Public Safety Commission that oversees the National Police Agency.
44. "트럼프와 포옹한 이용수 할머니, 일본에 일침 "참견 마라"" [Elderly lady Lee Yong-soo hugged Trump. ... She spoke strongly to the Japan's [right-wing Japanese nationalist government] "Don't interfere"]. 중앙일보. 9 November 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2023.
45. "문정인 "바이든이 미 대통령 되면 북한 문제 풀기 어려워"" [Moon Chung-in said, "If Biden [not Trump] becomes the U.S. president, it will be difficult to solve the North Korean problem".]. 동아일보. 3 July 2020. Retrieved 21 March 2023.
46. "아베는 철저히 '아름다운 일본'을 고수했다". 경향신문. 25 July 2021. Retrieved 24 April 2023. 한국에서 아베 전 총리는 흔히 극우 정치인 내지 일본 극우 세력의 핵심 인물로 여겨진다. 국제사회의 평가는 다르다. 아베 전 총리의 부고를 전하는 서구권 외신 기사 대부분은 "일본 전시 역사에 대한 모호한 태도와 안보에 대한 강경한 자세로 한국과의 갈등을 초래했다"(워싱턴포스트)고 짚으면서도 그를 '극우'로 여기는 경우는 많지 않다. "트럼프와 같은 민족주의자는 아니었으나 극우 세력의 사랑을 받았다"(시애틀타임스)는 정도로 표현한다. [In South Korea, Abe is mostly considered a "far-right politician" or a "key figure in Japanese far-right forces". However, the international community's assessment is different. Most Western foreign articles that convey Abe's obituary pointed out that "the ambiguous attitude toward Japanese war crimes history and hawkish attitude toward security caused conflict with South Korea" (Washington Post), but it is not common to regard him as a "far right". [Western media] Mainly describe [Shinzo Abe as] "not a nationalist like Trump, but loved by far-right forces" (Seattle Times).]
47. [3] Archived August 29, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, Ex-adviser Steve Bannon says Abe was 'Trump before Trump,' urges him to play hardball with China, Japan Times, 8 March 2019.
48. "아사히신문 마저도 '문재인 정권' 탓". 피렌체의 식탁. 7 January 2020. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
49. ""문재인, 비참한 말로", "文, 목숨을 구걸하나"...벌거벗은 日언론". Seoul Shinmun. 22 April 2022. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
50. "日 아사히, 한국은 '후미에(踏み絵)', 문 정부는 사면초가". Seoul Shinmun. 26 June 2019. Retrieved 2 May 2023.
51. "청와대, 일본 아사히신문에 이례적으로 '무기한 출입정지'". 중앙일보. 18 May 2018. Retrieved 20 March 2023.
52. ""한국 대선 결과, 바이든 행정부 아시아 정책에 상당한 영향"". Voice of America. 27 January 2022.