This article needs attention from an expert in chemistry or pharmacology. The specific problem is: a need to review the content for use of less than independent, reliable sources (like Shulgin's work per se), for disconnection of article from actual source content, and for straying from NPOV in only positive perspectives outside the lead.WikiProject Chemistry or WikiProject Pharmacology may be able to help recruit an expert.(September 2024)
American chemist and recreational drug explorer (1925–2014)
Alexander Theodore "Sasha" Shulgin (June 17, 1925 – June 2, 2014)[1] was an American biochemist, broad researcher of synthetic psychoactive compounds, and author of works regarding these, who independently explored the organic chemistry and pharmacology of such agents—in his mid-life and later, many through preparation in his home laboratory, and testing on himself.[2] He is acknowledged to have introduced to broader use, in the late 1970s, the prior synthesized compound, MDMA ("ecstasy") in research psychopharmacology and in combination with conventional therapy, the latter through presentations and academic publications, including to psychologists; and for the rediscovery, occasional discovery, and regular synthesis and personal use and distribution, possibly of hundreds of psychoactive compounds (for their psychedelic and MDMA-like empathogenicbioactivities). As such, Shulgin is seen both as a pioneering and a controversial participant in the emergence of the broad use of psychedelics.[2][3][1]
In 1991 and 1997, he and his wife Ann Shulgin compiled the books PiHKAL and TiHKAL (Phenethylamines I Have Known And Loved, likewise for Tryptamines),[4][5] from notebooks that extensively described their work and personal experiences with these two classes of psychoactive drugs. Shulgin documented the chemical synthesis of many of these compounds. Some of the syntheses catalogued by Shulgin in his books include chemicals in the 2C family (such as 2C-B), compounds of the DOx family (such as DOM), and tryptamines (such as 4-HO-MET and 4-HO-MiPT).
Writing in 2005—in the decade before Shulgin's death—a retrospective by Drake Bennett of The New York Times Magazine noted that as a consequence of Shulgin's testing his various synthetic compounds "for activity by taking the chemicals himself... most of the scientific community consider[ed] Shulgin at best a curiosity and at worst a menace", but Bennett goes on to say that "near the end... [Shulgin's] faith in the potential of psychedelics ha[d] at least a chance at vindication", going on to note the various clinical trials underway on compounds of interest to Shulgin.[3] The early 2000s also was a period where Shulgin was witness to a series of incidents in which young men overdosed on a novel psychoactive agent whose preparation was disclosed by Shulgin in one of his books. Before his death (and before the onset of his late life dementia), Shulgin expressed sadness over the deaths, but argued that all drugs, including aspirin, carry risks with incorrect use.[2][8]
Early life and career
Shulgin was born in Berkeley, California,[9] to Theodore Stevens Shulgin (1893–1978)[10] and Henrietta D. (Aten) Shulgin (1894–1960).[10][11] His father was born in Chelyabinsk, Russia; his mother was born in Illinois. Theodore and Henrietta were public school teachers in Alameda County.[12]
Shulgin studied organic chemistry at Harvard University as a scholarship student, and was enrolled there at the age of 16.[3] He dropped out to join the U.S. Navy,[3][13] during his second year at Harvard.[14] In 1944 a military nurse gave Shulgin a glass of orange juice prior to a surgery for a thumb infection,[3] while serving on USS Pope during World War II;[2] he drank the juice and, assuming that crystals at the bottom of the glass were a sedative, "fell unconscious".[3] Upon waking he learned that the crystals were undissolved sugar, and that doctors had administered anesthesia after he was already unconscious—an experience Drake Bennett of The New York Times Magazine referred to as "revelatory", and a "tantalizing hint of the mind's odd strength",[3] as "his collapse was caused entirely by the placebo effect".[2][15]
At this time he had a series of psychedelic experiences that helped to shape his further goals and research, the first of which was brought on by mescaline.[19]
"I first explored mescaline in the late '50s ... Three-hundred-fifty to 400 milligrams. I learned there was a great deal inside me."[19]
Shulgin later reported personal revelations that "had been brought about by a fraction of a gram of a white solid, but that in no way whatsoever could it be argued that these memories had been contained within the white solid ... I understood that our entire universe is contained in the mind and the spirit. We may choose not to find access to it, we may even deny its existence, but it is indeed there inside us, and there are chemicals that can catalyze its availability."[3]
Zectran-containing pesticide manufactured by Dow; photo taken at the Farm on July 26, 2009.
Shulgin's professional activities continued to lean in the direction of psychopharmacology, furthered by his personal experiences with psychedelics. But during this period he was unable to do much independent research. His opportunity for further research came in 1961 after his development of Zectran, the first biodegradable pesticide, a highly profitable product. In his book PiHKAL, Shulgin limits his pesticide days at Dow Chemical to one sentence in 978 pages. Dow Chemical Company, in return for Zectran's valuable patent, gave Shulgin great freedom. During this time, he created and patented drugs when Dow asked, and published findings on other drugs in journals such as Nature and the Journal of Organic Chemistry. One of these patents, approved in 1970, involved phenethylamines.[20] Eventually, Dow Chemical requested that he no longer use their name on his publications.[3]
In late 1966, Shulgin left Dow in order to pursue his own interests. He first spent two years studying neurology at the University of California, San Francisco School of Medicine, leaving to work on a consulting project. He set up a home-based lab on his property, known as "the Farm", and became a private consultant. He also taught classes in the local universities and at the San Francisco General Hospital. Through his friend Bob Sager, head of the U.S. DEA's Western Laboratories, Shulgin formed a relationship with the DEA and began holding pharmacology seminars for the agents, supplying the DEA with samples of various compounds, and occasionally serving as an expert witness in court. In 1988, he authored a then-definitive law enforcement reference book[21] on controlled substances, and received several awards from the DEA.[3]
Independent research
In order to work with scheduled psychoactive chemicals, Shulgin obtained a DEA Schedule I license for an analytical laboratory, which allowed him to synthesize and possess any otherwise illicit drug.[22] Shulgin set up a chemical synthesis laboratory in a small building behind his house, which gave him a great deal of career autonomy. Shulgin used this freedom to synthesize and test the effects of potentially psychoactive drugs.
In 1976, Shulgin was introduced to MDMA by a student in the medicinal chemistry group he advised at San Francisco State University.[23] MDMA had been synthesized in 1912 by Merck and patented in 1913 as an intermediate of another synthesis in order to block competitors, but was never explored in its own right. Shulgin went on to develop a new synthesis method, and in 1976, introduced the chemical to Leo Zeff, a psychologist from Oakland, California. Zeff used the substance in his practice in small doses as an aid to talk therapy. Zeff introduced the substance to hundreds of psychologists and lay therapists around the nation, including Ann (born Laura Ann Gotlieb), whom Alexander Shulgin met in 1979, and married in 1981.[3] It was her fourth marriage, and she had four children.[24]
Shulgin at the home-based lab on his property, known as "the Farm", 2009
After judicious self-experiments, Shulgin enlisted a small group of friends with whom he regularly tested his creations, starting in 1960. They developed a systematic way of ranking the effects of the various drugs, known as the Shulgin Rating Scale, with a vocabulary to describe the visual, auditory and physical sensations. He personally tested hundreds of drugs, mainly analogues of various phenethylamines (family containing MDMA, mescaline, and the 2C* family), and tryptamines (family containing DMT and psilocin). There are a seemingly infinite number of slight chemical variations, which can produce variations in effect — some pleasant and some unpleasant, depending on the person, substance, and situation — all of which are meticulously recorded in Shulgin's lab notebooks. Shulgin published many of these objective and subjective reports in his books and papers.[3] About 2C-B he said in 2003: "It is, in my opinion, one of the most graceful, erotic, sensual, introspective compounds I have ever invented. For most people, it is a short-lived and comfortable psychedelic, with neither toxic side-effects nor next-day hang-over."[25]
In 1994, two years after the publication of PIHKAL, the DEA raided his lab. The agency requested that Shulgin turn over his license for violating the license's terms, and he was fined $25,000 for possession of anonymous samples sent to him for quality testing. In the 15 years preceding the publication of PIHKAL, two announced and scheduled reviews failed to find any irregularities.[26] Richard Meyer, spokesman for DEA's San Francisco Field Division, has stated that, "It is our opinion that those books are pretty much cookbooks on how to make illegal drugs. Agents tell me that in clandestine labs that they have raided, they have found copies of those books."[3]
Shulgin was married to Nina Gordon until her death from a stroke in 1977.[28][29] He then married author Ann Gotlieb in 1981.[30][29] He spent most of his later life at the Farm in Lafayette, California.
On April 8, 2008, at the age of 82, he underwent surgery to replace a defective aortic valve.[31] On November 16, 2010, he suffered a stroke, from which he largely recovered.[32] Also at the close of 2010, a skin-grafting surgery saved his left foot from being amputated. Around this time, Shulgin began showing early signs of dementia, mostly severe loss of short-term memory. With progression of the dementia since 2010, his wife, Ann Shulgin, had been trying to sell part of their property to raise more money to cover care costs.
On April 17, 2014, Ann Shulgin reported on Facebook that her husband had developed liver cancer, and in a May 31 update on Facebook she said that, although appearing frail, he seemed to be experiencing his last moments in peace and without pain.[33] Shulgin died at his home on June 2, 2014, at the age of 88.[6]
Legacy
In a 2014 review of the synthesis of designer drugs, the effects of Shulgin's work were described as "by far the most far-reaching" effects associated with the cultural climate of interest at the time in hallucinogenic compounds generally and mescaline in particular, with which various artists and writers had experimented. Shulgin said that mescaline made him aware of a world submerged in human spirit, whose "availability" was "catalyzed" by such chemicals; the consequences of his insights were called "devastating" by the reviewers. In the same review, an example of his insights was given by his description of MDMA as "his low-calorie Martini".[34]
Societies
Shulgin was a member of Mensa International and frequently attended Mensa events in California.[35]
Alexander was a Bohemian Club member.[36][37][38] The Bohemian club is located in California where Alexander lived. Alexander refers to "The Owl Club" in chapter 11 of PiHKAL:
One evening in the late 1950s, I was invited to a musical soiree at an old comfortable home in the Berkeley Hills. I brought my viola with me... The only person I can remember from that evening was a handsome, proper gentleman with a small grey moustache and the residues of an English accent. During coffee, after the music was over, he struck up a conversation.
He asked me if I had ever heard of The Owl Club in San Francisco? I had not, so he began painting a picture of a rather fascinating group, with many interests in all sorts of art, drama and music. He mentioned that there was need for a viola player, and would I be interested in sitting in for a couple of evenings? ... The Club proved to be a group of gentlemen from a broad array of political and professional backgrounds, leaning somewhat toward the political right and the well-to-do. ... At my first evening at the Club... Andrew was appointed my Pater Familias ..."
— PiHKAL, First Printing, Eleventh Edition, Chapter 11, pp. 60–65[39]
Bibliography
Books
Controlled Substances: Chemical & Legal Guide to Federal Drug Laws. Berkeley, Calif.: Ronin Publishing (1988). ISBN091417150X.
Alexander Shulgin (2021). The Nature of Drugs. Berkeley, California: Transform Press. ISBN9780999547212.
Book contributions
"A New Vocabulary," with Ann Shulgin. In: Entheogens and the Future of Religion, edited by Robert Forte. Berkeley, Calif.: Council on Spiritual Practices (1997). ISBN1889725013.
1964. with H. O. Kerlinger. "Isolation of methoxyeugenol and trans-isoelemicin from oil of nutmeg". Naturwissenschaften 15: 360–361. 31
1965. "Synthesis of the trimethoxyphenylpropenes". Can. J. Chem. 43: 3437–3440. 43
1966. "Possible implication of myristicin as a psychotropic substance". Nature 210: 380–384. 45
1966. "The six trimethoxyphenylisopropylamines (trimethoxyamphetamines)". J. Med. Chem. 9: 445–446. 46
1966. with T. Sargent, and C. Naranjo. "Role of 3,4-Dimethoxyphenethylamine in schizophrenia". Nature 212: 1606–1607. 48[40]
1967. with T. Sargent, and C. Naranjo. "The chemistry and psychopharmacology of nutmeg and of several related phenylisopropylamines". In D. H. Efron [ed.]: Ethnopharmacologic search for psychoactive drugs. U. S. Dept. of H. E. W., Public Health Service Publication No. 1645. Pp. 202–214. Discussion: ibid. pp. 223–229. 49
1967. with T. Sargent. "Psychotropic phenylisopropylamines derived from apiole and dillapiole". Nature 215: 1494–1495. 50
1967. with Sargent, T. W., D. M. Israelstam, S. A. Landaw, and N. N. Finley. "A note concerning the fate of the 4-methoxyl group in 3,4-dimethoxyphenethylamine (DMPEA)". Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 29: 126–130. 52
1967. with Naranjo, C. and T. Sargent. "Evaluation of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) as an adjunct to psychotherapy". Med. Pharmacol. Exp. 17: 359–364. 53
1968. "The ethyl homologs of 2,4,5-trimethoxyphenylisopropylamine". J. Med. Chem. 11: 186–187. 54
1969. with T. Sargent and C. Naranjo. "Structure activity relationships of one-ring psychotomimetics". Nature 221: 537–541. 57
1969. "Recent developments in cannabis chemistry". J. Psyched. Drugs 2: 15–29. 58
1969. "Psychotomimetic agents related to the catecholamines". J. Psyched. Drugs 2(2): 12–26. 59
1970. "Chemistry and structure-activity relationships of the psychotomimetics". In D. H. Efron [ed.]. "Psychotomimetic Drugs". Raven Press, New York. Pp. 21–41. 60
1970. "The mode of action of psychotomimetic drugs; some qualitative properties of the psychotomimetics". Neur. Res. Prog. Bull. 8: 72–78. 61
1970. "4-alkyl-dialkoxy-alpha-methyl-phenethylamines and their pharmacologically-acceptable salts". U. S. Patent 3,547,999, issued December 15, 1970. 63
1971. with T. Sargent and C. Naranjo. "4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylisopropylamine, a new centrally active amphetamine analog". Pharmacology 5: 103–107. 64
1971. "Chemistry and sources". In S. S. Epstein [ed]. "Drugs of abuse: their genetic and other chronic nonpsychiatric hazards". The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Pp 3–26. 65
1971. "Preliminary studies of the synthesis of nitrogen analogs of Delta1-THC". Acta Pharm. Suec. 8: 680–681. 66
1972. "Hallucinogens, CNS stimulants, and cannabis. In S. J. Mulé and H. Brill [eds.]: Chemical and biological aspects of drug dependence". CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio. Pp. 163–175. 67
1973. "Stereospecific requirements for hallucinogenesis". J. Pharm. Pharmac. 25: 271–272. 68
1973. "Mescaline: the chemistry and pharmacology of its analogs". Lloydia 36: 46–58. 69
1973. "The narcotic pepper – the chemistry and pharmacology of Piper methysticum and related species". Bull. Narc. 25: 59–1974. "Le poivre stupéfiant – chemie et pharmacologie du Piper methysticum et des espéces apparentées". Bull. Stupéfiants 25: 61–77. 70
1973. with T. Sargent and C. Naranjo. "Animal pharmacology and human psychopharmacology of 3-methoxy-4,5-methylenedioxyphenylisopropylamine (MMDA)". Pharmacology 10: 12–18. 71
1974. with Kalbhen, D. A., T. Sargent, G. Braun, H. Stauffer, N. Kusubov, and M. L. Nohr. "Human pharmacodynamics of the psychodysleptic 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenylisopropylamine labelled with [82]Br". IRCS (Int. Res. Comm. Sys.) 2: 1091. 73
1975. with Sargent, T., D. A. Kalbhen, H. Stauffer, and N. Kusubov. "A potential new brain-scanning agent: 4-[77]Br-2,5-dimethoxyphenylisopropylamine (4-Br-DPIA)". J. Nucl. Med. 16: 243–245. 74
1975. with M. F. Carter. "Centrally active phenethylamines". Psychopharm. Commun. 1: 93–98. 75
1975. with Sargent, T., D. A. Kalbhen, G. Braun, H. Stauffer, and N. Kusubov. "In vivo human pharmacodynamics of the psychodysleptic 4-Br-2,5-dimethoxyphenylisopropylamine labelled with [82]Br or [77]Br". Neuropharmacology 14: 165–174. 76
1975. "The chemical catalysis of altered states of consciousness. Altered states of consciousness, current views and research problems". The drug abuse council, Washington, D. C. Pp. 123–134. 77
1975. "Drug use and anti-drug legislation". The PharmChem Newsletter 4 (#8). 79
1975. with D. C. Dyer. "Psychotomimetic phenylisopropylamines. 5. 4-alkyl-2,5-dimethoxyphenylisopropylamines". J. Med. Chem. 18: 1201–1204. 80
1975. with C. Helisten. "Differentiation of PCP, TCP, and a contaminating precursor PCC, by thin layer chromatography". Microgram 8: 171–172. 81
1975. with Helisten, C. "The detection of 1-piperidinodydlohexanecarbonitrile contamination in illicit preparations of 1-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)piperidine and 1-(1-(2-thienyl)cyclohexyl)piperidine". J. Chrom. 117: 232–235. 82
1976. "Psychotomimetic agents". In M. Gordon [ed.] "Psychopharmacological agents", Vol. 4. Academic Press, New York. Pp. 59–146. 83
1976. "Abuse of the term 'amphetamines'". Clin. Tox. 9: 351–352. 84
1976. "Profiles of psychedelic drugs. 1. DMT". J. Psychedelic Drugs 8: 167–168. 85
1976. "Profiles of psychedelic drugs. 2. TMA-2". J. Psychedelic Drugs 8: 169. 86
1976. with D. E. MacLean. "Illicit synthesis of phencyclidine (PCP) and several of its analogs". Clin. Tox. 9: 553–560. 87
1976. with Nichols, D. E. "Sulfur analogs of psychotomimetic amines". J. Pharm. Sci. 65: 1554–1556. 89
1976. with Sargent, T. and N. Kusubov. "Quantitative measurement of demethylation of [14]C-methoxyl labeled DMPEA and TMA-2 in rats". Psychopharm. Commun. 2: 199–206. 90
1976. with Standridge, R. T., H. G. Howell, J. A. Gylys, R. A. Partyka. "Phenylalkylamines with potential psychotherapeutic utility. 1. 2-amino-1-(2,5,-dimethoxy-4-methylphenyl)butane". J. Med. Chem. 19: 1400–1404. 91
1976. "Profiles of psychedelic drugs. 3. MMDA". J. Psychedelic Drugs 8: 331. 92
1977. "Profiles of psychedelic drugs. 4. Harmaline". J. Psychedelic Drugs 9: 79–80. 93
1977. "Profiles of psychedelic drugs. 5. STP". J. Psychedelic Drugs 9: 171–172. 94
1977. with Nichols, D. E., and D. C. Dyer. "Directional lipophilic character in a series of psychotomimetic phenethylamine derivatives". Life Sciences 21: 569–576. 95
1977. with Jacob, P. III, G. Anderson III, C. K. Meshul, and N. Castagnoli Jr. "Mononethylthio analogues of 1-(2,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)2-aminopropane". J. Med. Chem. 20: 1235–1239. 96
^ abcdefghijklmBennett, Drake (January 30, 2005). "Dr. Ecstasy". The New York Times Magazine. Archived from the original on November 17, 2011. Retrieved July 8, 2006. Shulgin tested for activity by taking the chemicals himself... Most of the scientific community considers Shulgin at best a curiosity and at worst a menace. Now, however, near the end of his career, his faith in the potential of psychedelics has at least a chance at vindication. A little more than a month ago, the Food and Drug Administration approved a Harvard Medical School study looking at whether MDMA can alleviate the fear and anxiety of terminal cancer patients. And next month will mark a year since Michael Mithoefer, a psychiatrist in Charleston, S.C., started his study of Ecstasy-assisted therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder.
^TotC Pictures Staff (March 6, 2010). Dirty Pictures: Alexander Shulgin Documentary Movie Trailer, SXSW 2010 (movie trailer blurb, streaming video). New York, NY: Dirty Pictures/Turn of the Century (TotC). Retrieved September 8, 2024. Dirty Pictures: a documentary about Dr. Alexander Sasha Shulgin, the rogue chemist who discovered the effects of MDMA (aka Ecstasy) and over 200 other mind-altering drugs. Shulgins alchemy has earned him the title "The Godfather of Psychedelics," and a reputation as one of the great chemists of the 20th century.[dubious – discuss]
^Likewise, his collaborator David Nichols, while blaming "the growth of unregulated, untested legal highs" on drug laws, admitted being bothered, saying, "[w]hen I used to talk about psychedelic research, the one thing you could say was these drugs do not kill people... But then when I started seeing people killed by this irresponsible marketing and use, this was not something I intended.” See Power (2014), op. cit.
^Ancestry.com. California Birth Index, 1905–1995 [database on-line]. Provo, Utah: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2005. Original data: State of California. California Birth Index, 1905–1995. Sacramento, California: State of California Department of Health Services, Center for Health Statistics.
^ abAncestry.com. California Death Index, 1940–1997 [database on-line]. Provo, Utah: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2000. Original data: State of California. California Death Index, 1940–1997. Sacramento, California: State of California Department of Health Services, Center for Health Statistics.
^Ancestry.com. 1930 United States Federal Census [database on-line]. Provo, Utah: Ancestry.com Operations Inc, 2002. Year: 1930; Census Place: Berkeley, Alameda, California; Roll 111; Page: 1B; Enumeration District: 320; File: 1029.0.
