The École normale supérieure – PSL (French pronunciation:[ekɔlnɔʁmalsypeʁjœʁ]; also known as ENS, Normale sup', Ulm or ENS Paris) is a grande école in Paris, France. It is one of the constituent members of Paris Sciences et Lettres University (PSL).[6] Due to its selectivity, historical role, and influence within French society, the ENS is generally considered the most prestigious of the grandes écoles, as well as one of the most prestigious higher education institutions in France.[7] Its pupils are generally referred to as normaliens, while its alumni are sometimes referred to as archicubes.[8]
The school was founded in 1794 during the French Revolution,[9] to provide homogeneous training of high-school teachers in France, but it later closed. The school was subsequently reestablished by Napoleon I as pensionnat normal from 1808 to 1822, before being recreated in 1826 and taking the name École normale in 1830. When other institutes called écoles normales were created in 1845, the word supérieure (meaning upper) was added to form the current name. In 1936, the institution started providing university-level education.[10]
As a grande école, the vast majority of the academic staff hosted at the ENS also belong to external institutions such as one of the Parisian universities, the CNRS and the EHESS. Generalistic in its recruitment and organisation, the ENS is the only grande école in France to have departments of research in all the natural, social, and human sciences. Its alumni include 14 Nobel Prize laureates,[11] of which 8 are in Physics, 12 Fields Medalists, more than half the recipients of the CNRS's Gold Medal, several hundred members of the Institut de France, as well as several French and foreign politicians and statespeople.[12]
History
Founding
Entrance of the historic building of the ENS, at 45, rue d'Ulm. The inscriptions on the pediment of the monumental doorway display the school's two dates of creation (the first, 9 brumaire an III (30 October 1794), in the oculus, under the National Convention, the second, 17 March 1808), and the date of dedication of this building, 24 April 1841.
The current institution finds its roots in the creation of the École normale de l'an III by the post-revolutionary National Convention led by Robespierre in 1794. The school was created based on a recommendation by Joseph Lakanal and Dominique-Joseph Garat, who were part of the commission on public education. The École normale was intended as the core of a planned centralised national education system. The project was also conceived as a way to reestablish trust between the Republic and the country's elites, which had been alienated to some degree by the Reign of Terror. The decree establishing the school, issued on 30 October 1794 (9 brumaire an III), states in its first article that "There will be established in Paris an école normale (literally, a normal school), where, from all the parts of the Republic, citizens already educated in the useful sciences shall be called upon to learn, from the best professors in all the disciplines, the art of teaching."
The inaugural course was given on 20 January 1795 and the last on 19 May of the same year at the Museum of Natural History. The goal of these courses was to train a body of teachers for all the secondary schools in the country and thereby to ensure a homogenous education for all. These courses covered all the existing sciences and humanities and were given by scholars such as: scientists Monge, Vandermonde, Daubenton, Berthollet and philosophers Bernardin de Saint-Pierre and Volney were some of the teachers. The school was closed as a result of the arrival of the French Directory but this école normale was to serve as a basis when the school was founded for the second time by Napoleon I in 1808.
On 17 March 1808, Napoleon created by decree a pensionnat normal within the imperial University of France charged with "training in the art of teaching the sciences and the humanities".[13] The establishment was opened in 1810, its strict code including a mandatory uniform. By then a sister establishment had been created by Napoleon in Pisa under the name of Scuola Normale Superiore (SNS), which continues to exist today and still has close ties to the Paris school. Up to 1818, the students are handpicked by the academy inspectors based on their results in the secondary school. However, the "pensionnat" created by Napoleon came to be perceived under the Restoration as a nexus of liberal thought and was suppressed by then-minister of public instruction Denis-Luc Frayssinous in 1824.
Second founding
The main entrance to the ENS on Rue d'Ulm. The school moved into its current premises in 1847.
An école préparatoire was created on 9 March 1826 at the site of Collège Louis-le-Grand. This date can be taken as the definitive date of creation of the current school. After the July Revolution, the school regained its original name of École normale and in 1845 was renamed École normale supérieure. During the 1830s, under the direction of philosopher Victor Cousin, the school enhanced its status as an institution to prepare the agrégation by expanding the duration of study to three years, and was divided into its present-day Sciences and Letters divisions.[14] In 1847 the school moved into its current quarters at the rue d'Ulm, next to the Panthéon in the 5th arrondissement of Paris.[15] This helped it gain some stability, which was further established under the direction of Louis Pasteur.
Having been recognised as a success, a second school was created on its model at Sèvres for girls in 1881, followed by other schools at Fontenay, Saint-Cloud (both of which later moved to Lyon, and Cachan). The school's status evolved further at the beginning of the twentieth century.
In 1903 it was integrated into the University of Paris as a separate college,[16] perhaps as a result of its exposure to national attention during the Dreyfus Affair, in which its librarian Lucien Herr and his disciples, who included the socialist politician Jean Jaurès and the writers Charles Péguy and Romain Rolland spearheaded the campaign to overturn the wrongful conviction pronounced against Captain Alfred Dreyfus.[17] The first female student – Marguerite Rouvière – was accepted in 1910, which made headline news in France and polarised opinion.[18]
The ranks of the school were significantly reduced during the First World War, but the 1920s marked a degree of expansion of the school, which had among its students at this time such figures as Raymond Aron, Jean-Paul Sartre, Vladimir Jankélévitch and Maurice Merleau-Ponty.
The high sacrifice paid by normaliens in the First World War was recognized by the award of the croix de guerre avec citation à l ordre de l armée in 1925.[19]
Twentieth century
After the Second World War, in which some of its students were players in the Resistance, the school became more visible and increasingly perceived as a bastion of the communist left. Many of its students belonged to the French Communist Party. This leftist tradition continued into the 1960s and 1970s during which an important fraction of French Maoists came from ENS. In 1953 it was made autonomous from the University of Paris,[20] but it was perceived ambivalently by the authorities as a nexus of protest, particularly due to the teachings delivered there by such controversial figures as political philosopher Louis Althusser. As of now, by law, ENS comes under the direct authority of the Minister for Higher Education and Research.[21]
The fallout from the May 1968 protests caused President of the Republic Georges Pompidou, himself a former student at the school, to force the resignation of its director, Robert Flacelière and to appoint his contemporary Jean Bousquet as his successor [citation needed]. Both Flacelière and Bousquet were distinguished classicists.
The school continued to expand and include new subjects, seeking to cover all the disciplines of natural and social sciences. In this manner, a new concours was opened in 1982 to reinforce the teaching of social sciences at the school.[14] The concours, called B/L (the A/L concours standing for the traditional letters and human sciences), greatly emphasises proficiency in mathematics and economics alongside training in philosophy and literature.
For a long time, most women were taught at a separate ENS, the École normale supérieure de jeunes filles at Sèvres. However, women were not explicitly barred entry until a law of 1940, and some women were students at Ulm before this date, such as philosopher Simone Weil[22] and classicist Jacqueline de Romilly. In 1985, after heated debates, the two were merged into a single entity with its main campus at the historic site at the rue d'Ulm in Paris.[23][24]
Organisation
École normale supérieure is a grande école, a French institution of higher education that is separate from, but parallel and connected to the main framework of the French public university system. Similar to the Ivy League in the United States, Oxbridge in the UK, and C9 League in China, grandes écoles are elite academic institutions that admit students through an extremely competitive process.[25][26][27]Grandes écoles typically have much smaller class sizes and student bodies than public universities in France, and many of their programs are taught in English, and while most are more expensive than French universities, École normale supérieure charges the same tuition fees: for 2021/2022, they were €243 to register for the master's degree.[28] International internships, study abroad opportunities, and close ties with government and the corporate world are a hallmark of the grandes écoles.[29][30] Degrees from École normale supérieure are accredited by the Conférence des Grandes Écoles[31] and awarded by the Ministry of National Education (France) (French: Ministère de l'Éducation nationale).[32] Alumni go on to occupy elite positions within government, administration, and corporate firms in France.[33][34]
Sites
The quadrangle at the main ENS building on rue d'Ulm is known as the Cour aux Ernests – the Ernests being the goldfish in the pond.
The École normale supérieure is one of a few schools that still occupy a campus in the heart of Paris. The historic Paris ENS campus is located around the rue d'Ulm, the main building being at 45 rue d'Ulm in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, which was built by architect Alphonse de Gisors and given to ENS by law in 1841.[35] Above the entrance door are sculptures of two female figures who respectively represent letters and sciences. They are portrayed sitting on either side of a medallion of Minerva, who represents wisdom. A formalised version of this frontal piece is used as the school's emblem.
The main site at 45 rue d'Ulm is organized around a central courtyard, the Cour aux Ernests. Another courtyard south of this one, the Cour Pasteur, separates the school from the apartment buildings of the rue Claude-Bernard. These buildings house the administrative functions of the school, and some of its literary departments (philosophy, literature, classics and archeology), its mathematics and computer science departments, as well as its main human sciences library. The site's monument aux morts, which was inaugurated in 1923 and stands as a reminder of the normaliens who died in the First World War, is a work by Paul Landowski.[36]
Several auxiliary buildings surround this main campus in adjacent streets. The closest one, opposite the main entrance, at 46 rue d'Ulm, houses the school's biology department and laboratories as well as a part of its student residences. The seat of the school's physics and chemistry departments, inaugurated in 1936 by Léon Blum and Albert Lebrun, lies north of the school on rue Lhomond, while further up the rue d'Ulm its number 29 houses secondary libraries and the school's department of cognitive sciences.
ENS has a second campus on Boulevard Jourdan (previously the women's college), in the 14th arrondissement of Paris, which is home to the school's research department of social sciences, law, economics and geography, as well as further student residences. The site has been undergoing major reconstruction since 2015. In 2017, President Francois Hollande inaugurated a new building on site, which is home to the ENS economics department, the school's social science library, and the Paris School of Economics, an ENS project.
The school has a secondary site in the suburb of Montrouge, which houses some of its laboratories alongside those of Paris Descartes University. It features green areas and sporting facilities as well as some 200 student rooms. A fourth site in the town of Villejuif, south of Paris, hosts some of the school's biology laboratories.
Recruitment
The school is very small in student numbers. Its core of students, who are called normaliens, are selected via a competitive exam called a concours (baccalaureate + 2 years). Preparation for the concours takes place in preparatory classes which last two years (see grandes écoles). Two hundred normaliens are thus recruited every year, half of them in the sciences and the same number in the humanities, and receive a monthly salary (around €1,350/month in 2018), and in exchange they sign a ten-year contract to work for the state. Although it is seldom applied in practice, this exclusivity clause is redeemable (often by the hiring firm).
Other students called "normaliens étudiants" can be selected but they do not have their study paid. They are selected with the preparation of a research project (baccalaureate + 2–4 years).
PhD students at ENS are either graduate students from the ENS doctoral school[37] or from another doctoral school co-accredited by ENS.[38] Since 2016 PhD students preparing their doctoral research at ENS are awarded a PhD from PSL University.
ENS also welcomes selected foreign students (the "international selection"), participates in various graduate programs, and has extensive research laboratories. The foreign students selected often receive a scholarship which covers their expenses.
The students selected via the concours remain at the school for a length of time ranging from four to six years. Normaliens from France and other European Union countries are considered civil servants in training.[39] Many students devote at least one of those years to the agrégation, which allows them to teach in high schools or universities. Faculty recruitment is selective, with between zero and one ENS professorship open per year[citation needed]. Faculty recruitments usually happen upon previous incumbent retirements. In informal ENS jargon, ENS full professors are popularly called PdPs ("professeurs des professeurs)" because traditionally ENS was created to educate future professors[citation needed].
Divisions
The school's Cour aux Ernests under a coat of snow (2013).
Founded to train high school teachers through the agrégation, ENS is now an institution training researchers, professors, high-level civil servants, and business and political leaders. It focuses on the association of training and research, with an emphasis on freedom of curriculum. The school's resources are equally divided between its "Letters" (social and human sciences and literature) and its "Sciences" (natural sciences and mathematics) sections. The school's fifteen departments and its thirty-five units of research (unités mixtes de recherches or UMR in French) work in close coordination with other public French research institutions such as the CNRS.[citation needed]
The emphasis is placed squarely on interdisciplinarity. Students who entered from a scientific concours (thus having mainly studied in their preparatory school maths, physics, and chemistry or biology) are encouraged to attend courses in the literary departments. Conversely, maths and physics introductory courses are on offer for the students from the "literary" departments. The ENS graduate degree, instituted in 2006, requires students to attend a certain number of courses not related to their major.[57]
Libraries
The École normale supérieure has a network, known as Rubens, of ten libraries shared over its sites, which taken together make up the third largest library in France.[58] The catalogue is available for consultation online.[59] Entrance to the libraries is reserved to domestic and international researchers of doctoral level, as well as to the teachers at the school, normaliens, other ENS students, and PSL Research University students. The main library, devoted to literature, classics, and human sciences, dates back to the nineteenth century when it was greatly expanded by its director, the famous dreyfusardLucien Herr. Its main reading room is protected as a monument historique.[60] This main library, which covers several thousand square metres, is one of the largest free access funds of books in France, with upwards of 800,000 books readily available and more than 1600 periodicals. Its classics section is part of the national network of specialised libraries (Cadist).[61]
A secondary library concerned with social science, economics, and law is located at the Jourdan campus for social science. This library has more than 150,000 books in the subjects it covers[citation needed]. The school also has specialised libraries in archeology, cognitive sciences, mathematics and computer science, theoretical physics. A recently unified natural sciences library was opened in 2013, aiming to bring together in a central place on rue d'Ulm the libraries of physics, chemistry, biology and geoscience.[62][63] The school also features two specialised centres for documentation, the Bibliothèque des Archives Husserl, and the Centre d'Archives de Philosophie, d'Histoire et d'Edition des Sciences.
Affiliations
Two other écoles normales supérieures were established in the 20th century: the École Normale Supérieure de Lyon (sciences and humanities); and the École normale supérieure Paris-Saclay (pure and applied sciences, sociology, economics and management, English language). More recently, the fourth école normale supérieure was created in January 2014 under the name of École Normale Supérieure de Rennes (pure and applied sciences, economics and management, law school, sport) in Brittany. All four together form the informal ENS-group[citation needed].
The École normale supérieure is also an institution of PSL Research University, a union of several higher education institutions, all located in Paris, which aims at achieving cooperation and developing synergies between its member institutions to promote French research abroad.[64] In addition to this, the École normale supérieure cooperates in Atomium Culture, the first permanent platform for European excellence that brings together some of Europe's leading universities, newspapers and businesses.[65] The school is a member of the Conference of University Presidents and of the Conference of Grandes Écoles.
Domestic partnerships
Its educational project being based on research, ENS seeks to train its students to become researchers. The main objective of the education given is getting a doctorate, and more than 85% of normaliens achieve this[citation needed]. The students are free to choose their own course of study but must at least attain a master's degree in research. Since, traditionally, the institution does not have the powers to grand university degrees, students have to follow courses in other universities in Paris. To this end, ENS cultivates a large number of partnerships and conventions with other higher education institutions to create master's degrees which are co-presided by two institutions. ENS works closely with the École des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales (EHESS), the Paris-Sorbonne University, the Panthéon-Sorbonne University, HEC Paris and ESSEC Business School in particular to deliver joint diplomas to a certain number of students who have followed courses shared between the two institutions. It is also the main partner in the Paris School of Economics project which it has launched along with the EHESS, the École Nationale de la Statistique et de l'Administration Économique (ENSAE) and the École des Ponts. This project seeks to create a unified Master's-level economics school in Paris.[66]
The Scuola Normale Superiore in Pisa was founded in 1810 as a branch of the École normale supérieure by Napoleon and later gained independence.[67] ENS and its Italian twin have retained very close links since this time and since 1988 a special partnership has 80 normaliens going to Pisa every year while half the class of the SNS spend a year at the Paris school. During its history and due to the far reach of the French Empire during the colonial era, many schools have been created around the world based on the ENS model, from Haiti (in Port-au-Prince) to Vietnam (in Hanoi) to the Maghreb (in Tunis, Casablanca, Oran, and Rabat to name but a few) and Subsaharan Africa (in Nouakchott, Libreville, Yaoundé, Dakar, Niamey, Bangui for example). ENS maintains good relations and close links with these institutions. In 2005, ENS opened a branch at the East China Normal University (ECNU) in Shanghai, whose French name was changed to École normale supérieure de l'Est de la Chine to reflect the agreement, and a joint doctoral program between the two institutions was launched.[68]
ENS welcomes international researchers for one-year stays through the mediation of the Paris Institute of Advanced Research and the Villa Louis-Pasteur. The Blaise Pascal, Marie Curie, Condorcet and Lagrange research places (chaires) also allow researchers from abroad to stay for more than a year at ENS laboratories. ENS also is a member of the Franco-Chinese laboratory Saladyn since 2013.[69] It has been hosting an antenna of New York University's Erich Maria Remarque Institute since 2007.[70]
Furthermore, ENS has partnerships for research at Master's and Doctorate levels, sending its students to universities around the world to complete their tuition. It also shares thesis habilitation with universities abroad, meaning that somes theses can be written with support from both the ENS and one of its partner institutions. It is also customary for students in the literary and linguistic subjects to go to teach for one year in universities abroad with the position of junior fellows. These exchange and cooperation programs link ENS with universities such as the University of Beijing in China, Freie Universität Berlin in Germany, the universities of Cambridge, Edinburgh and Oxford in the United Kingdom, Trinity College in Dublin, McGill University in Montréal, and the universities at Berkeley, Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, Princeton, Stanford, and Yale in the United States.[71]
Academics
Publishing
Since 2001, the École normale supérieure's internet portal, called Diffusion des savoirs ("Spreading knowledge") has offered access to more than 2000 recordings of conferences and seminars that have taken place at the school, in all sciences natural and social.[72] The school also has launched its own short conference platform, Les Ernest,[73] which shows renowned specialists speaking for fifteen minutes on a given subject in a wide scope of disciplines.
In 1975 the school founded its university press, first called Presses de l'ENS then renamed in 1997 to Editions Rue d'Ulm. This press, which operates on a small scale, publishes specialist academic books mainly in the spheres of literature and the social sciences. Some 300 works are available on line on in the press's bookshop, and about 25 new titles are published every year.[74]
Foundation
In 1986, an ENS foundation was created and recognised as a fondation d'utilité publique by law.[75] It contributes to the development of the school, most notably by encouraging and facilitating the reception of foreign students and researchers. The Foundation, presided by Alain-Gérard Slama, manages some investments into financed positions for foreign researchers in ENS-associated laboratories. It has for example financed the Louis Pasteur villa, situated close by ENS, which welcomes foreign researchers for extended stays. It has also contributed to financing several positions for scientists in ENS laboratories, for instance in research on telecom network security with France Télécom and on "artificial vision" with the Airbus foundation.
In France, ENS has been regarded since the late 19th century as one of foremost grandes écoles. However, the ENS system is different from that of most higher education systems outside France, thus making it difficult to compare with foreign institutions; in particular, it is much smaller than a typical English collegiate university. It is ranked as the second "small university" worldwide behind California Institute of Technology by the 2016 Times Higher Education Smaller Universities Ranking (a ranking of institutions of fewer than 5000 students).[76] It is generally regarded as the premier French institute for higher education and research, and it is currently ranked first among French universities by the ARWU and Times.[77]
Louis Pasteur was a student at the school before directing it for many years.
Throughout its history, a sizeable number of ENS alumni, some of them known as normaliens, have become notable in many varied fields, both academic and otherwise, ranging from Louis Pasteur, the chemist and microbiologist famed for inventing pasteurisation, to philologistGeorges Dumézil, novelist Julien Gracq and socialist Prime Minister Léon Blum.
Mathematics and physics
Évariste Galois, the founder of Galois theory and group theory, was an early student at ENS, then still called École préparatoire, in the 1820s, at the same time as fellow mathematician Augustin Cournot. Though mathematics continued to be taught at the school throughout the 19th century, its real dominance of the mathematic sphere would not emerge until after the First World War, with a young generation of mathematicians led by André Weil, known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry (also the brother of fellow student, philosopher Simone Weil). This rejuvenation continued into the 1930s, as exemplified by the 1935 launch of the influential Nicolas Bourbaki project, whose work permeated the field of mathematics throughout the 20th century. In 1940 former student Henri Cartan was appointed professor at the school like his father Élie Cartan, carrying the school's importance in the field still further with his work in algebraic topology. His teaching, which continued until 1965, was vastly influential in shaping his students, who included Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat, Gustave Choquet, Jacques Dixmier, Roger Godement, René Thom and Jean-Pierre Serre.[78]Denis Auroux, a famous symplectic geometer at Harvard University, is also an acclaimed Normalien.
Its position as a leading institution in the training of the critical spirit has made ENS into France's premier training ground for future philosophers and producers of what has been called by some "French theory". Its position as a philosophical birthplace can be traced back to its very beginnings, with Victor Cousin a student in the early 19th century. Two ENS philosophers won the Nobel Prize in Literature for their writings, Henri Bergson and Jean-Paul Sartre. Raymond Aron, the founder of French anti-communist thought in the 1960s and Sartre's great adversary, was a student from the same year as Sartre, and they were both near contemporaries of phenomenologistMaurice Merleau-Ponty, musicologist Vladimir Jankélévitch and historian of philosophy Maurice de Gandillac. In Sèvres, in the ENS for young women, philosopher and mystic Simone Weil was accomplishing her years of study at the same time. Jean Hyppolite, the founder of Hegelian studies in France, also studied at the school at this time and later influenced many of its students. EpistemologistsGeorges Canguilhem and Jean Cavaillès, the latter also known as a Résistance hero, were educated at ENS as well.
Simone Weil attended the École normale supérieure in the 1920s and beat classmate Simone de Beauvoir to first place in philosophy.
There is a tradition of social sciences at the school, and Émile Durkheim, regarded as one of the founders of the discipline of sociology, was a student at the school in 1879, around the same time as Théodule Ribot, a psychologist well known for developing Ribot's Law. Pierre Bourdieu, who studied dynamics of power in society and its transmission over generations and became a vocal critic of the French system of grandes écoles and notably ENS as the standard-bearer of that system, studied at ENS in the early 1950s, at the same time as his later intellectual adversary, individualistRaymond Boudon, both of them having taken and passed the agrégation in philosophy at the end of their studies at the school. Other major ENS sociologists and anthropologists include Maurice Halbwachs, Alain Touraine and Philippe Descola. The school also has a tradition of geography, with the founder of modern French geography and of the French School of Geopolitics Paul Vidal de La Blache having been a student at the school starting in 1863.
^Serge Benoît, "La rue d'Ulm", in Christian Hottin (ed.), Universités et grandes écoles à Paris : les palais de la science, Paris, Action artistique de la ville de Paris, 1999, p. 177.
^Brasseur, Roland (April 2011). "Quelques scientifiques ayant enseigné en classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles". Bulletin de l'Union des Professeurs de Spéciales (234). Paris.
^1926, p. 26).
AUx oRIGINES DE IJ\ KHAGNE 31
grecque, soit une explication d'allemand, ou d'anglais, ou d'italien, ou d'espagnol, soit une seconde interrogation sur I'histoire ou la philosophie ,. On avait donc tenté, semble-t-il, d'éliminer de l'écrit la plupart des épreuves qui demandaient un travail de révision trop intense, incompatible avec les quelques mois de préparation passés dans les centres de préparation mili- taires. Ces épreuves, reléguées a l'oral, voyaient d'ailleurs leur programme considérablement limité par rapport a celui des concours ordinaires. Ainsi, en histoire, les connaissances exigées portaient sur la France de 1789 a la fin du Directoire et sur u I'Empire allemand, I'Autriche-Hongrie, l'Angleterre et l'Amérique dans la seconde moitié du xrx" siècle >.
L'organisation de ce concours spécial avait naturellement pour but, on I'a vu, de sauvegarder les droits des khàgneux dont la mobilisation et les années au front avaient interrompu les études. De son cóté, la III" République entendait ainsi reconstituer le plus rapidement possible cette ( élite u que son système scolaire était chargé de promouvoir et que la guerre venait de décimer. Et, de fait, la session spéciale de 1919 déboucha sur une promotion plus importante que les promotions habituelles, mais aussi, en termes relatifs, sur un pourcentage de réussites plus élevé qu'a l'habitude. Sur 233 candidats littéraires inscrits, 70 furent regus normaliens et 75 boursiers de licence ls. A titre de comparaison, avant et après le conflit mondial, pour un nombre a peu près égal de candidats, les promotions littéraires comptaient un peu moins d'une trentaine de membres, et une vingtaine de bourses de licence étaient allouées.
D'une manière générale, et toujours dans le double dessein de préserver les droits des mobilisés et' de reconstituer des cadres vidés par la guerre, beaucoup d'examens et de concours universitaires de I'année 1919 et des années suivantes furent largement ouverts aux démobilisés : par exemple, l'agrégation d'histoire et de géographie de 1920 compta, pour sa session normale, sept regus - dont le premier fut Pierre Gaxotte -, ¤t, pour sa < session spéciale >, vingt-six regus.
L'École normale supérieure en 1919.
Du fait de la guerre, se cÒtoyèrent donc a l'École normale supérieure, en 1919 et dans les années suivantes, des élèves d'àges et d'expériences très différents. La promotion spéciale de 1919 comprenait des mobilisés de l'été 1914 et des soldats appelés sous les drapeaux au cours des années suivantes. Des élèves reQus au Concours de 1914 ei mobilisés aussitót après, tel Marcel Déat, commengaient, en réalité, eux aussi leur scolarité rue d'Ulm en 1919. Les survivants des promotions 1912 et 1913 reprenaient leurs années de scolarité a I'Ecole, interrompues par la guerre avant I'agrégation. Les élèves des promo- tions 191ó, 1917 ou 1918 continuaient leurs études ou les reprenaient, certains
ayant été mobilisés après leur réussite au concours. Enfin, les élèves du concours normal de 1919 entamaient, eux aussi, leurs années d'études. Un texte de Paul Dupuy, qui fut pendant plusieurs décennies < surveillant
13. Joumal Officiel, 21 juillet 1925, p. ó859.
^The decree of 26 August 1987 states that the Minister for Higher Education and Research has authority over ENS in the same way rectors have authority over universities, thus ensuring ENS's independence from the mainstream university system.
^Jean Leclant, "L'École normale supérieure et l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres : passé, présent et futur", Comptes-rendus des séances de l'Académie des inscriptions et belles-lettres, 1999, 138, no. 4.
Collective, Les Normaliens peints par eux-mêmes, Chamerot et Renouard, 1895.
Dimoff, Paul, La Rue d'Ulm à la Belle époque (1899–1903), G. Thomas, 1970.
Dufay, François & Dufort, Pierre-Bertrand, Les Normaliens. De Charles Péguy à Bernard-Henri Lévy, un siècle d'histoire, J.-C. Lattès, 1993.
Ferrand, Michèle, Imbert, Françoise & Marry, Catherine, L'Excellence scolaire : une affaire de famille. Le cas des normaliennes et normaliens scientifiques, L'Harmattan, 1999.
Flacelière, Robert, Normale en péril, Presses universitaires de France, 1971.
Hummel, Pascale, Humanités normaliennes. L'enseignement classique et l'érudition philologique dans l'École normale supérieure au XIXe siècle, Les Belles Lettres, No. 298, 1995.
Hummel, Pascale, Regards sur les études classiques au XIXe siècle. Catalogue du fonds Morante, Paris, Presses de l'École normale supérieure, 1990.
Hummel, Pascale, Pour une histoire de l'École normale supérieure : sources d'archives (1794–1993), National Archives, Presses de l'École normale supérieure, 1995.
Israël, Stéphane, Les Études et la guerre. Les normaliens dans la tourmente, Éditions Rue d'Ulm, 2005.
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