Language variety with substantially codified grammar and usage
A standard language (or standard variety, standard dialect, standardized dialect or simply standard) is any language variety that has undergone substantial codification of its grammar, lexicon, writing system, or other features and that stands out among related varieties in a community as the one with the highest status or prestige.[1][2] Often, it is the prestige language variety of a whole country.[1]
In linguistics, the process of a variety becoming organized into a standard, for instance by being widely expounded in grammar books or other reference works,[2] and also the process of making people's language usage conform to that standard,[3] is called standardization. Typically, the varieties that undergo standardization are those associated with centres of commerce and government,[4][2] used frequently by educated people and in news broadcasting, and taught widely in schools and to non-native learners of the language.[5][1] Within a language community, standardization usually begins with a particular variety being selected (often towards a goal of further linguistic uniformity), accepted by influential people, socially and culturally spread, established in opposition to competitor varieties, maintained, increasingly used in diverse contexts, and assigned a high social status as a result of the variety being linked to the most successful people.[6] As a sociological effect of these processes, most users of a standard dialect—and many users of other dialects of the same language—come to believe that the standard is inherently superior to, or consider it the linguistic baseline against which to judge, the other dialects.[7] However, such beliefs are firmly rooted in social perceptions rather than any objective evaluation.[5] Any varieties that do not carry high social status in a community (and thus may be defined in opposition to standard dialects) are called nonstandard or vernacular dialects.
The term standard language occasionally refers also to the entirety of a language that includes a standardized form as one of its varieties.[18][19] In Europe, a standardized written language is sometimes identified with the German word Schriftsprache (written language). The term literary language is occasionally used as a synonym for standard language, a naming convention still prevalent in the linguistic traditions of eastern Europe.[20][21] In contemporary linguistic usage, the terms standard dialect and standard variety are neutral synonyms for the term standard language, usages which indicate that the standard language is one of many dialects and varieties of a language, rather than the totality of the language, whilst minimizing the negative implication of social subordination that the standard is the only form worthy of the label "language".[22][23]
Linguistic standardization
The term standard language identifies a repertoire of broadly recognizable conventions in spoken and written communications used in a society; the term implies neither a socially ideal idiom nor a culturally superior form of speech.[24] These conventions develop from related dialects, usually by social action (ethnic and cultural unification) that elevate discourse patterns associated with perceived centres of culture, or more rarely, by deliberately defining the norms of standard language with selected linguistic features drawn from the existing dialects, as in the case of Modern Hebrew.[25][26]
Either course of events typically results in a relatively fixed orthography codified in grammars and normative dictionaries, in which users can also sometimes find illustrative examples drawn from literary, legal, or religious texts.[26] Whether grammars and dictionaries are created by the state or by private citizens (e.g. Webster's Dictionary), some users regard such linguistic codifications as authoritative for correcting the spoken and written forms of the language.[27] Effects of such codifications include slowing the pace of diachronic change in the standardized variety and affording a basis for further linguistic development (Ausbau).[26] In the practices of broadcasting and of official communications, the standard usually functions as a normalizing reference for speech and writing. In educational contexts, it usually informs the version of the language taught to non-native learners.[28]
In those ways, the standard variety acquires social prestige and greater functional importance than nonstandard dialects,[28] which depend upon or are heteronomous with respect to the standard idiom. Standard usage serves as the linguistic authority, as in the case of specialist terminology; moreover, the standardization of spoken forms is oriented towards the codified standard.[29] Historically, a standard language arises in two ways: (i) in the case of Standard English, linguistic standardization occurs informally and piecemeal, without formal government intervention; (ii) in the cases of the French and Spanish languages, linguistic standardization occurs formally, directed by prescriptive language institutions, such as the Académie Française and the Royal Spanish Academy, which respectively produce Le bon français and El buen español.[30][28]
A standard variety can be conceptualized in two ways: (i) as the sociolect of a given socio-economic stratum or (ii) as the normative codification of a dialect, an idealized abstraction.[31] Hence, the full standardization of a language is impractical, because a standardized dialect cannot fully function as a real entity, but does function as set of linguistic norms observed to varying degrees in the course of usus – of how people actually speak and write the language.[32][33] In practice, the language varieties identified as standard are neither uniform nor fully stabilized, especially in their spoken forms.[34] From that perspective, the linguist Suzanne Romaine says that standard languages can be conceptually compared to the imagined communities of nation and nationalism, as described by the political scientist Benedict Anderson,[33] which indicates that linguistic standardization is the result of a society's history and sociology, and thus is not a universal phenomenon;[33] of the approximately 7,000 contemporary spoken languages, most do not have a codified standard dialect.[33]
Politically, in the formation of a nation-state, identifying and cultivating a standard variety can serve efforts to establish a shared culture among the social and economic groups who compose the new nation-state.[35] Different national standards, derived from a continuum of dialects, might be treated as discrete languages (along with heteronomous vernacular dialects)[36] even if there are mutually intelligible varieties among them,[37][38] such as the North Germanic languages of Scandinavia (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish).[39] Moreover, in political praxis, either a government or a neighbouring population might deny the cultural status of a standard language.[40] In response to such political interference, linguists develop a standard variety from elements of the different dialects used by a society.
For example, when Norway became independent from Denmark in 1814, the only written language was Danish. Different Norwegian dialects were spoken in rural districts and provincial cities, but people with higher education and upper-class urban people spoke "Danish with a Norwegian pronunciation". Based upon the bourgeois speech of the capital Oslo (Christiania) and other major cities, several orthographic reforms, notably in 1907 and 1917, resulted in the official standard Riksmål, in 1929 renamed Bokmål ('book tongue'). The philologist Ivar Aasen (1813–1896) considered urban and upper-class Dano-Norwegian too similar to Danish, so he developed Landsmål ('country tongue'), the standard based upon the dialects of western Norway. In 1885 the Storting (parliament) declared both forms official and equal. In 1929 it was officially renamed Nynorsk (New Norwegian).
Likewise, in Yugoslavia (1945–1992), when the Socialist Republic of Macedonia (1963–1991) developed their national language from the dialect continuum demarcated by Serbia to the north and Bulgaria to the east, their Standard Macedonian was based upon vernaculars from the west of the republic, which were the dialects most linguistically different from standard Bulgarian, the previous linguistic norm used in that region of the Balkan peninsula. Although Macedonian functions as the standard language of the Republic of North Macedonia, nonetheless, for political and cultural reasons, Bulgarians treat Macedonian as a Bulgarian dialect.[41]
Chinese consists of hundreds of local varieties, many of which are not mutually intelligible, usually classified into seven to ten major groups, including Mandarin, Wu, Yue, Hakka and Min.
Before the 20th century, most Chinese spoke only their local variety.
For two millennia, formal writing had been done in Classical Chinese, a style modelled on the classics and far removed from any contemporary speech.[42]
As a practical measure, officials of the late imperial dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties, known as Guānhuà (literally "speech of officials").[43]
In the early 20th century, many Chinese intellectuals argued that the country needed a standardized language.
By the 1920s, Literary Chinese had been replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on Mandarin dialects.[44]
In the 1930s, Standard Chinese was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other Mandarin varieties and its syntax based on the written vernacular.[45]
It is the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China (where it is called Pǔtōnghuà "common speech"), the de facto official language of the Republic of China governing Taiwan (as Guóyǔ "national language") and one of the official languages of Singapore (as Huáyǔ "Chinese language").[46]Standard Chinese now dominates public life, and is much more widely studied than any other variety of Chinese.[47]
In the United Kingdom, the standard language is British English, which is based upon the language of the medieval court of Chancery of England and Wales.[48] In the late-seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Standard English became established as the linguistic norm of the upper class, composed of the peerage and the gentry.[49] Socially, the accent of the spoken version of the standard language then indicated that the speaker was a man or a woman possessed of a good education, and thus of high social prestige.[50] In England and Wales, Standard English is usually associated with Received Pronunciation, "the standard accent of English as spoken in the south of England.", but it may also be spoken with other accents, and in other countries still other accents are used (Australian, Canadian, American, Scottish, etc.) [51]
Two standardized registers of the Hindustani language have legal status in India: Standard Hindi (one of 23 co-official national languages) and Urdu (Pakistan's official tongue); as a result, Hindustani is often called "Hindi-Urdu".[53]
An Caighdeán Oifigiúil ('The Official Standard'), often shortened to An Caighdeán, is the official standard of the Irish language. It was first published by the translators in Dáil Éireann in the 1950s.[54] As of September 2013,[55] the first major revision of the Caighdeán Oifigiúil is available, both online[56] and in print.[57] Among the changes to be found in the revised version are, for example, various attempts to bring the recommendations of the Caighdeán closer to the spoken dialect of Gaeltacht speakers,[58] including allowing further use of the nominative case where the genitive would historically have been found.[59]
Italian
Standard Italian is derived from the Tuscan dialect, specifically from its Florentine variety—the Florentine influence upon early Italian literature established that dialect as base for the standard language of Italy.[60][61] In particular, Italian became the language of culture for all the people of Italy, thanks to the prestige of the masterpieces of Florentine authors like Dante Alighieri, as well as to the political and cultural significance of Florence at the time and the fact that it was linguistically an intermediate between the northern and the southern Italian dialects.[62] It would later become the official language of all the Italian states, and after the Italian unification it became the national language of the Kingdom of Italy.[63] Modern Standard Italian's lexicon has been deeply influenced by almost all regional languages of Italy.
Latin
The standard language in the Roman Republic (509 BC – 27 BC) and the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 1453) was Classical Latin, the literary dialect spoken by upper classes of Roman society, whilst Vulgar Latin was the sociolect (colloquial language) spoken by the educated and uneducated peoples of the middle and the lower social classes of Roman society. The Latin language that Roman armies introduced to Gaul, Hispania, and Dacia had a grammar, syntax, and vocabulary different from the Classical Latin spoken and written by the statesman Cicero.[64]
Portuguese
Brazil
In Brazil, actors and journalists usually adopt an unofficial, but de facto, spoken standard of Brazilian Portuguese, originally derived from the middle-class dialects of Rio de Janeiro and Brasília, but that now encompasses educated urban pronunciations from the different speech communities in the southeast. This artificial accent is called sotaque neutro. In that standard, ⟨s⟩ represents the phoneme /s/ when it appears at the end of a syllable (whereas in Rio de Janeiro this represents /ʃ/) and the rhotic consonant spelled ⟨r⟩ is pronounced [h] in the same situation (whereas in São Paulo this is usually an alveolar flap or trill).
European and African dialects have differing realizations of /ʁ/ than Brazilian dialects, with the former using [ʁ] and [r] and the latter using [x], [h], or [χ].[66]
Serbo-Croatian
Four standard variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian are spoken in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia.[16][67] They all have the same dialect basis (Štokavian).[53][68][69] These variants do differ slightly, as is the case with other pluricentric languages,[53][70] but not to a degree that would justify considering them as different languages. The differences between the variants do not hinder mutual intelligibility and do not undermine the integrity of the system as a whole.[71][72][73] Compared to the differences between the variants of English, German, French, Spanish, or Portuguese, the distinctions between the variants of Serbo-Croatian are less significant.[74][75]Nonetheless, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro have all named the language differently in their constitutions.[76]
Somali
In Somalia, Northern Somali (or North-Central Somali) forms the basis for Standard Somali,[77] particularly the Mudug dialect of the northern Darod clan. Northern Central Somali has frequently been used by famous Somali poets as well as the political elite, and thus has the most prestige among other Somali dialects.[78]
^Eachach (2012), p. 2: "Rinneadh iarracht ar leith san athbhreithniú seo foirmeacha agus leaganacha atá ar fáil go tréan sa chaint sna mórchanúintí a áireamh sa Chaighdeán Oifigiúil Athbhreithnithe sa tslí is go mbraithfeadh an gnáthchainteoir mórchanúna go bhfuil na príomhghnéithe den chanúint sin aitheanta sa Chaighdeán Oifigiúil agus, mar sin, gur gaire don ghnáthchaint an Caighdeán Oifigiúil anois ná mar a bhíodh."
^Eachach (2012), p. 7: "Triaileadh, mar shampla, aitheantas a thabhairt don leathnú atá ag teacht ar úsáid fhoirm an ainmnigh in ionad an ghinidigh sa chaint."
^Coletti (2011), p. 318, quote="L'italiano di oggi ha ancora in gran parte la stessa grammatica e usa ancora lo stesso lessico del fiorentino letterario del Trecento."
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Carter, Ronald (1999). "Standard Grammars, Spoken Grammars: Some Educational Implications.". In Bex, Tony; Watts, R.J. (eds.). Standard English: The Widening Debate. Routledge. pp. 149–166.
Charity Hudley, Anne H.; Mallinson, Christine (2011). Understanding English Language Variation in U.S. Schools. New York: Teachers College Press. ISBN9780807774021.
Clyne, Michael G., ed. (1992). Pluricentric Languages: Differing Norms in Different Nations. Contributions to the sociology of language. Vol. 62. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN3-11-012855-1.
Coletti, Vittorio (2011). "Storia della lingua". Istituto della Enciclopedia italiana. Retrieved 10 October 2015.
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Horrocks, Geoffrey (1997). Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers (1st ed.). London: Longman. ISBN9780582307094.
Inoue, M. (2006). "Standardization". In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Vol. 12 (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 121–127. ISBN978-0-08-044299-0.
Kafadar, Enisa (2009). "Bosnisch, Kroatisch, Serbisch – Wie spricht man eigentlich in Bosnien-Herzegowina?" [Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian – How do people really speak in Bosnia-Herzegovina?]. In Henn-Memmesheimer, Beate; Franz, Joachim (eds.). Die Ordnung des Standard und die Differenzierung der Diskurse; Teil 1 (in German). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. pp. 95–106. ISBN9783631599174. OCLC699514676. Retrieved 9 May 2013.
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Starčević, Anđel (2016). "Govorimo hrvatski ili 'hrvatski': standardni dijalekt i jezične ideologije u institucionalnom diskursu". Suvremena Lingvistika (in Serbo-Croatian). 81. University of Zagreb: 67–103.
Сулейменова, Элеонора Д. (2006). Словарь социолингвистических терминов (in Russian). Moscow: Российская академия наук. Институт языкознания. Российская академия лингвистических наук.
Trudgill, Peter (1992). "Ausbau sociolinguistics and the perception of language status in contemporary Europe". International Journal of Applied Linguistics. 2 (2): 167–177. doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.1992.tb00031.x.
Trudgill, Peter (2004). "Glocalisation and the Ausbau sociolinguistics of modern Europe". In Anna Duszak, Urszula Okulska (ed.). Speaking from the margin: global English from a European perspective. Frankfurt: Peter Lang. pp. 35–49. ISBN9783631526637.
Trudgill, Peter (2006). "Standard and Dialect Vocabulary". In Brown, Keith (ed.). Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Vol. 12 (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 119–121. ISBN978-0-08-044299-0.
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Further reading
Ammon, Ulrich (1995). Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz: das Problem der nationalen Varietäten [German Language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland: The Problem of National Varieties] (in German). Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter. OCLC33981055.
Joseph, John E. (1987). Eloquence and Power: The Rise of Language Standards and Standard Languages. New York: Blackwell. ISBN978-1-55786-001-9.
Kloss, Heinz (1976). "Abstandsprachen und Ausbausprachen" [Abstand-languages and Ausbau-languages]. In Göschel, Joachim; Nail, Norbert; van der Elst, Gaston (eds.). Zur Theorie des Dialekts: Aufsätze aus 100 Jahren Forschung. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik, Beihefte, n.F., Heft 16. Wiesbaden: F. Steiner. pp. 301–322. OCLC2598722.
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Balai Utama Ninnaji Ninnaji (仁和寺) atau Kuil Ninna adalah komplek kuil Buddha yang terletak di Kota kyoto, Jepang. Kuil yang awalnya dinamakan Nishiyamagoganji ini, didirikan pada Zaman Heian oleh Kaisar Koko. Pada saat kematiannya, Kaisar Uda melanjutkan pembangunan dan menyelesaikan kuil pada tahun ke-4 Era Ninna (tahun 888). Setelah turun tahta, Kaisar Uda mendedikasikan diri sebagai biksu aliran Shingon. Sejak saat itu, kuil Ninna dijuluki sebagai Istana Kekaisaran Omuro dimana salah...
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1928 Philippine Senate elections ← 1925 June 5, 1928 1931 → 11 of the 24 seats in the Philippine Senate Majority party Minority party Leader Manuel L. Quezon Juan Sumulong Party Nacionalista Democrata Leader's seat 5th District 3rd District Seats before 14 8 Seats won 9 2 Seats after 16 6 Seat change 2 2 Senate President before election Manuel L. Quezon Nacionalista Elected Senate President Manuel L. Quezon Nacionalista Politics of ...
Encontro Medieval de El Entrego. O Encontro Medieval de El Entrego (Alcuentru Medieval de L'Entregu, em asturiano) é uma atividade realizada desde 2006 pela Sociedade Cultural e Festival de El Entrego. Origem Esta atividade nasceu com a idéia de dar uma volta às tradicionais Fiestas de La Laguna, em que está enquadrada e, acima de tudo, de recuperar a história do conselho através da figura do rei Aurélio. Desenvolvimento Todos os anos, um rei Aurélio é escolhido entre pessoas destaca...
2008 single by N.E.R.DEveryone Nose (All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom)Single by N.E.R.Dfrom the album Seeing Sounds B-sideSpazReleasedMay 13, 2008 (2008-05-13)GenreHip hopLength3:27LabelInterscopeSongwriter(s) Pharrell Williams Chad Hugo Producer(s)The NeptunesN.E.R.D singles chronology Maybe (2004) Everyone Nose (All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom) (2008) Spaz (2008) Everyone Nose (All the Girls Standing in the Line for the Bathroom) is a so...
Inducing another person to commit a crime Not to be confused with Call for bids. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: Solicitation – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Criminal law Elements Actus reus Mens rea Causation Con...
Linux distribution For other uses, see Kaisen. Kaisen LinuxKaisen Linux KDE default desktopDeveloperKaisen Linux team and volunteer contributorsOS familyLinux (Unix-like)Working stateCurrentSource modelOpen-source[1]Initial releasealpha / 14 December 2019 (3 years ago) (2019-12-14)Latest release2.2 / 13 December 2022Marketing targetServersUpdate methodaptPackage managerAPTPlatformsx86-64[2]Kernel typeMonolithic (Linux kernel)UserlandGNUDefaultuser interfaceKDE Pl...
1993 Indian film GandhariDirected bySunilWritten bySab JohnStarringMadhaviBabu AntonyRelease date12 September 1993CountryIndiaLanguageMalayalam Gandhari is a 1993 Indian Malayalam-language action thriller film directed by Sunil and written by Sab John. The film stars Madhavi, Babu Antony, Zainuddin, Siddique, Rajan P. Dev, Sai Kumar, M. G. Soman and Jose Pellissery. Plot Aparna is a rich woman who hires Vishnu and his friends to exact vengeance against Commissioner Sathyanath and Ittichen. Sa...
2008 single by Agnes Carlsson Release MeSingle by Agnesfrom the album Dance Love Pop Released28 November 2008Recorded2008Genre Europop Dance-pop disco Length4:15LabelRoxySongwriter(s)Anders Hansson, Sharon Vaughn, Agnes CarlssonProducer(s)Anders Hansson, Felix Persson, Märta GrauersAgnes singles chronology On and On (2008) Release Me (2008) Love Love Love (2009) Music videosRelease Me on YouTubeRelease Me (US Edition) on YouTubeAudio samplefilehelp Release Me is a pop song recorded by Swedis...