Sengunthar

Sengunthar
Virabahu and 8 other Navaveerargal under Lord Kartikeya on the wall of Chidambaram temple
Kuladevta (male)	Kartikeya[1][2][3]
Kuladevi (female)	Kamakshi Amman,[3] Angalamman Parameswari
Religions	Hinduism
Languages	Tamil
Populated states	Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Pondicherry, Sri Lanka
Feudal title	Mudaliar, Cholagangan, Brahmmarayan
Notable members	List of Sengunthars
Related groups	Kaikalas of Andhra

Sengunthar ([sɛŋkʊnʈɻ]), also known as the Kaikolar and Senguntha Mudaliar is a caste commonly found in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and the neighboring country Sri Lanka. In Andhra Pradesh, they are known as Kaikala or Karikala Bhaktulu, who consider the early Chola emperor Karikala Chola as their hero.^[4] They were Warriors of Cholas and traditionally Textile Merchants and Silk Weavers by occupation ^[5] They were part of the Chola army as Kaikola regiment and were dominant during the rule of Imperial Cholas, holding commander and minister positions in the court.^[6] Ottakoothar, 12th century court poet and minister of Cholas under Vikrama Chola, Kulothunga Chola II, Raja Raja Chola II reign belong to this community. In the olden days in India, the Sengunthars were warriors and were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.^[7] In early thirteenth century, after the fall of Chola empire large number of Kaikolars migrated to Kongu Nadu from Tondaimandalam and started doing weaving and textile businesses as their full time profession as they sworn to be soldiers only for Chola emperors. At present, most of the textile businesses in Tamil Nadu are owned by Senguntha Mudaliars. Majority of Sengunthars are sub-divided into numerous clans based on a patrilineal lineage known as Koottam or Gotra.

Etymology

The ancient occupational name of Kaikkolar comes from the words kai (hand) and kol (a shuttle used in looms). The appended -ar means people.^[8] Kaikkolar also means men with stronger arms.^[9][10]

Sengunthar means red spear people, which has the community's connection to the Lord Murugan, who is known as a red god. Legend has it that there were nine commanders called Navaveerargal in Murugan's army and Sengunthars descended from them.^[8]

In ancient times they were also called as Kaarugar (weaver), Thanthuvayar (weaver), Senguntha padaiyar (soldiers), Senaithalaivar (army commander) and Kaikolar (Weaver).^[11]

Sengunthars were given the title Mudaliar for their bravery.^[12] The twelfth century Chola emperor's court poet and minister Ottakoothar’s Itti Elupatu, a panegyric on the bravery and prowess of arms of Kaikkola warriors, says they were known as Mudaliars during the Imperial Chola period.^[13]

Mudali means first, suggesting that the title bearer is of the first-ranked among people.^[14][15] They had also used the title Nayanar after their names.^[16]

History

Origin

Shiva was enraged against the giants who harassed the people of the earth and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, Parvati, was frightened, and retired to her chamber and in so doing, dropped nine beads from her anklets. Siva converted the beads into as many females, to each of whom was born a hero. These nine heroes (Navaveerargal), namely Virabahu,^[17] Virakesari, Viramahendrar, Viramaheshwar, Virapurandharar, Viraraakkathar, Viramaarthandar, Viraraanthakar and Veerathirar with Subrahmanya at their head, marched in command of a large force, and destroyed the demons. Sengunthar claim to be the descendants of these warriors. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Siva that they adopt a profession, which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature and weaving being such a profession, they were trained in it. Chithira valli, daughter of Virabahu, one of the above commanders was married to King Musukuntha Chola . The descendants of Navaveerargal and Musukunthan were claimed as first generation of Sengunthars.^[8][18]

Chola period

The earliest literary evidence about Sengunthar occurs in Adhi Diwakaram, a Tamil lexicon written by Sendan Diwakarar. This dictionary, probably from the 8th century CE, is thought to refer to them as weavers and army commanders, which may be indicative of their dual role in society at that time.^[19]

Cholan Poorva Pattayam, a copper plate inception, says about the Karikala Chola, the conquest of the Kongu region, and the settling of the colonies with various occupational castes like Sengunthars. During this period, Sengunthars got the title called Samaya Senapati (meaning commander or head).^[20]

Inscriptions from the 11th century suggest that by the time of the Chola dynasty, the Sengunthar had already developed its involvement in weaving and trading, together with a role in military matters that was probably necessary to protect those interests. They were a part of the Ayyavole 500 trading group during the Chola period and there are also references in the 12th century that suggest they had armies and that some specific people were assigned to act as bodyguards for the Chola emperors. Such historical records emphasise their military function, with the poet Ottakoothar glorifying them and suggesting that their origins lay with the armies of the gods.^[21]

They were militarized during the Imperial Chola period, when some of them held the title Brahmadaraya or Brahmmarayan, which was usually reserved for high-ranking Brahmin officials in the Chola government. They had also used the title 'Chola Gangan' from the evidence "Kaikolaril Kali Avinasi Yaana Ellam Valla Chola Gangan", which was only used by the royal families of the chola dynasty.^[22] Some of the well known Kaikola Battalions in Chola army were:

Singalantaka-terinda-Kaikkolar

Virachozha-terinja-Kaikkolar

Kodandarama-terinja-Kaikkolar

Danatonga-terinja-Kaikkolar

Parantaka-terinia-Kaikkolar

Muthuvalpetra-Kaikkolar

Samarakesarit-terinja-Kaikkolar

Vikramasingat-terinja-Kaikkolar

Adityapanma-terinda-Kaikkolar

Karikala-chozha-terinja-Kaikkolar

Arulmozhideva-terinja-Kaikkolar

Parttivasekarat-terinja-Kaikkolar

Gandaraditta-terinja-Kaikkolar

Madurantaka-terinja-Kaikkolar

Kodandarama-terinja-Kaikkolar is named after Aditya Chola I who had another name Kodandarama. Smarakesarit-terinja-Kaikkolar and Vikramasingat-terinja-Kaikkolar derived their names from possible titles of Parantaka Chola I. Gandaraditta-terinja-Kaikkolar must have been the name of a regiment called after king Gandaraditya Chola, the father of Uttama Chola. Singalantaka-terinda-Kaikkolar, a regiment named after Singalantaka i.e. Parantaka Chola I. Danatunga-terinja-Kaikkolar (regiment or group). The early writing of the record and the surname Danatunga of Parantaka I suggests its assignment to his reign. Muthuvalpetra, meaning the “recipient of the pearl ornamented sword” in Tamil seems to indicate some special honour or rank conferred on the regiment by the king. Arulmozhideva-terinja-Kaikkolar is named after Raja Raja Chola I.

Some were chieftains and commanders-in-chief of the later Cholas. Kaikkolar commanders-in-chief were known as Samanta Senapathigal^[23] or Senaithalaivar.^[24][23] Following is the list of Sengunthar chieftains under Imperial Cholas which is taken from the poem Eetiezhubathu written by Chola emperor's court poet and minister Ottakoothar.

• Putridan Kondan: King of Kalattur. Pallikondan: Chieftain of Chidambaram. Pazhuvur Veeran and Pazhuvur Narayanan: Chieftains of Pazhuvur. Thaniyan: Chieftain of Kanchi. Otriyuran: Chieftain of Thiruvottriyur. Thanjai Vemban: Chieftain of Thiruvaiyaru and chief minister under Parantaka Chola I's reign. Kangeyan: ruled Tondaimandalam under Kulothunga Chola II. Kalanthaiyarasan Mudaliar: son of Ponvilaintha kalathur king Madhimaan. Puliyur Palli Kondaan: son of Chidambaram king Vidangan. Pinavan Mudaliar: son of Kadambur king Kadhamban. Kandiyuran; son of Thiru kandiyur king Vibulan. Suban Mudaliar: Chieftain of Thiruchendur and commander under Rajadhiraja Chola I. Padaimaruthan: Chieftain of Thiruvidai maruthur.

According to Vijaya Ramaswamy, in early thirteenth century large number of Kaikolars were migrated to Kongu Nadu from Tondaimandalam^[25] after the fall of Chola empire.

Vijayanagara period

After the 13th century, Sengunthars became associated with weaving completely.^[26][27][28] According to Deepak Kumar, the Sengunthar weavers very often figure in the capacity of kudi, i.e. tenant-cultivators and also holders of kaniyachi, that is hereditary possession over the land.^[29] During the period of Sadasiva Raya of Vijayanagara empire, the sthanathar of the Brahmapuriswara temple made an agreement that they would cultivate certain lands of the Kaikkolar regiment.^[30][29]

In 14th century, Kottaiyannan Mudaliar, a chieftain who was ruling Namakkal and surrounding regions fought against Muslim invaders when they invaded south India. Chandramathi Mudaliar was a 17th-century Tamil chieftain and ruler of south Kongu Nadu (Erode region) who fought many battles against the Madurai Nayak.

According to India Before Europe by Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher, Cynthia Talbot, Sengunthars attained positions of responsibility at the two major Vaishnavite temples of Srirangam and Tirupati. In Tirupati, they were in charge of distributing the consecrated food offerings to the worshippers.

In the book The Political Economy of Commerce: Southern India, 1500–1650, author Sanjay Subrahmanyam states that many Sengunthar families were rich enough to contribute both land and gold to temples.

According to Himanshu Prabha Ray, in 1418 in Tiruvannamalai Arunachalesvara temple, Sengunthars were given the right to blow the conch, ride palanquins and elephants and wave the temple fly whisk.^[31] In 16th century some of the Kaikolars were migrated to Kerala region from Tamil region.^[25]

During Vijayanagara period, Sengunthars built Kodumbu Subramanya Swamy Temple at Palakkad. When issue aroused between Nambudiris and Sengunthars on which style the worship will take place in the temple, the King of Palakkad ordered that the worship will take place according to Sengunthars' culture.

Bogan, Poonduraiyan, Kanchaan, Pachayan, Kanjivelan, Senji, Paramakali, Aaran, Manikatti Sadayan and Mannayan clan of Sengunthars were appointed as Pulavars(Poet) for 24 nadus of Kongu Mandalam for their Proficiency in Tamil language. The Pulavars were granted rights over land, tax and ritual privilege during festive occasions for their service.^[32]

Traditions and festivals

Among Sengunthars, Both alcoholic and sexual abstinence are valued, as is control of the passions. But when they are concerned with the sacred locus of the interior, meat eating, blood sacrifice, spirit possession, and the worship of small gods are all prominent. Senaithalaivar thus follow both a priestly model and a Tamil tradition.^[33] The Kaikola Teesikar or Desigar were non-Brahmin priests at temples of Murugan. Sengunthar community practices both the vegetarian and non-vegetarian traditions.^[34]

Each family (kulam) of the Sengunthar had their own Kula Deivam (deity). Sengunthars share Murugan as a common deity and additionally have any one of several other deities, such as Angalamman or Ambayamman.^[1]

The Sura Samharam festival is a traditional ritual where the Sengunthars dress as the lieutenants of Karthikeya and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran.^[35]

Tamil Nadu

Historically there were four thisai nadus, which in turn was divided into 17 kilai nadus, exclusive of thisai nadus, totally making 72 nadus in the Sengunthar. The thisai nadus were Sivapuram (Walajabad) to the east, Thonthipuram to the south, Virinjipuram to the west, Chozhasingapuram (Sholinghur) to the north. ^[36]

The head of 72 nadu was Kancheepuram nadu which was called as Mahanadu by the Sengunthars.^[37] The head officer of Mahanadu were called as Aandavar and Aandavar is highest authority leader for Sengunthars.^[38] The head officer of the each nadu council were called as Naattaanmaikarar or Periyadhanakarar or Pattakarar.^[37]

Sengunthar Kaikola Mudaliyar have rights to give festival flag for Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple at Palani, the third of the six abodes of Lord Murugan. Because these people are descendamts of Navaveerargal who helped lord Murugan in Sura Samharam battle. During Vijayanagara period, Sengunthars built Kodumbu Subramanya Swamy Temple at Palakkad. During Sura Samharam festival, according to traditional ritual Senguntha Kaikolars dress as Navaveerargal lieutenants of Murugan and re-enact the killing of the demon Suran in the temple.

Shri Arulmigu Dhandayuthapani Swamy Temple, Palani, Dindugul

Andhra Pradesh

In Andhra pradesh, Sengunthars are also known as Kaikala or Karikala Bhakthulu. They consider the early Chola emperor Karikala Chola as their hero who is said to have conquered the Andhra region around 3rd century CE and converted forest lands there into agricultural lands. They built a bronze statue of Karikala Chola and a Satram in his name at Srisailam in Nandyal district. The Kaikalas form a very important part of the Thathayagunta Gangamma Jatara, the annual folk festival held at Tirupati.

The presiding deity of the Srikalahasteeswara temple at Srikalahasti Gnana Prasunambika Devi was born in Vellathurar Gotra of Senguntha Kaikola Mudaliar caste. It is customary for the bride to bring home the dowry and submit it by Sengunthars at the Shiva-Parvati wedding held here.

Sri Lanka

In the flag hoisting ceremony at Sri Lanka Nallur Kandaswamy temple, the Sengunthar families who were military heroes in old Jaffna Kingdom have rights to bring out the temple flag and carry the flag at the ceremony of Sura Samharam battle. During the flag ceremony day, the houses of Sengunthars are beautifully decorated with curtains with the picture of rooster, the legendary vehicle of Lord Muruga.^[39][40]

Kandaswamy Kovil, Nallur, Sri Lanka

Subgroups

There are some divisions among a section of the caste based on their traditions.

Siru Thaali Kaikolar

Siru thaali Kaikolar, also known as Saami katti Kaikolars, are characterized by a lingam tied to their arm, a custom now defunct.^[41] Women of this section worn small size of the Thali or Mangala sutra, due to which they are called so. This section allow widows to wear colored saris as other women.^[42] They are mainly found in the Eeruurunaadu^[43]( Erode, Salem and Namakkal districts ).

Perun Thaali Kaikolar or Kongu Kaikolar

Perun thaali Kaikolar (பெருதாலிகட்டி கைகோளர் முதலியார்கள்), also known as Kongu Kaikolar and 'Vellai seelai kaikkolar'. Women of this section wore big size of the Thali. Widows belonging this section wore white or saris like other Kongu castes hence the name 'Vellai seelai Kaikolar'. They are mainly found vastly in Coimbatore District and the Bhavani River Belt of Erode district. Being the aboriginal weavers of the Kongu region unlike later immigrants, they are properly called 'Kongu Kaikkolvar'

Rattukaara Kaikolar

Rattukaarar, also known as Rendukaarar because they weave with warps composed of double threads and they are traditional carpet makers. Other reason is said to be their sacrifice of first born's heads for weaving a skirt for their caste poet Ottakoothar. They are mainly found in West region of Tamil Nadu also from Koorai Nadu in Tanjore district of the Chola country.^[42]

Thalaikooda Mudaliyar

They are called Thalaikooda Mudaliyar( meaning "head refusers"), because it is said that in 12th century they refused to sacrifice the heads of their first sons to the caste poet, Ottakoothar to compose poem so they were outcast in that time. Talaikooda Mudaliar are originally from Koorainaadu, in Tanjore district of Chola country.^[44] Now they are found in Pondicherry^[45] region. Also called 'Thattaya Nattar' from their sub-region of the Kongu region.

Maduraiyar

Kaikolars of the Pandya country who wear the Meenakshi Sundareswarar thali like other Pandya country native castes.

Kaikolar originally of the Pandya country who wear the thali (marriage badge) of Meenakshi Sundareshwarar like other Pandya country native castes.

Kulagurus

The Kongu section has Adi Saiva kulagurus in common with other Kongu castes while the last three sub castes have the Irayamangalam Math, the descendant of Paranjothi Nayanar as their guru,^[46][9] army general of the Pallava Narasimhavarman I. His seat is at Irayamangalam by the Kaveri in the Namakkal District.

Current status

Sengundhars are a relatively high ranking caste who rival in status the main agriculturist caste, the Vellalars.^[47] Sengunthars were originally classified as Forward Caste(FC) but later listed as a Backward Class in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh because of the efforts of Erode Meenakshi Sundara Mudaliar.^[48][49] Kerala government refused to add Sengunthars in Backward classes list as according to them Sengunthars are not either socially or economically backward and they belonged to upper status.^[50]

Literary references

• Senguntha Prabanda Thiratu^[51] is a collection of various literary works written about Kaikkolars. It was originally published by Vannakkalanjiyam Kanji Shri Naagalinga Munivar in 1926 and republished in 1993 by Sabapathi Mudaliar.^{[52][full citation needed]} The collection contains:
• Senkunthar Pillai Tamizh by Gnanaprakasa Swamigal, Tirisirapuram Kovintha Pillai and Lakkumanaswami. A collection of songs about the Sungunthars, taken from palm-leaf manuscripts, that was first published in the 18th century in Kanchipuram
• Eetti Ezhubathu, the major literary work about the Sengunthars. It comprises poetry by Ottakkoothar written in the 12th century CE during the reign of Rajaraja Chola II. It describes the mythical origin of Sengunthar, expeditions of Sengunthar chieftains and also praises the 1008 Kaikolar who were beheaded trying to enable it to be written.^[53]
• Ezhupezhubathu, a sequel to Eetti Ezhubathu written by Ottakkoothar. In this work, he prays the goddess Saraswathi to reattach the heads of the 1008 Sengunthars to their respective bodies.
• Kalipporubathu, a collection of ten stanzas compiled by Kulothunga Chola III. These stanzas were written after Ezhupezhubathu to express joy when the 1008 heads were reattached. These stanzas include the songs who witnessed it in the court of Raja Raja II including himself which was later compiled by his successor Kulothunga Chozha III
• Thirukkai Vazhakkam, which describes the good deeds of Sengunthars and their Saivite religious principles. It was written by Puhalendi.
• Sengunthar Silaakkiyar Malai was written by Kanchi Virabadhra Desigar. It describes the legends and eminent personalities of the Sengunthar community.

Notable people

Further information: List of Sengunthars

See also

• Adaviyar
• Padmashali
• Tanti
• Kaikalas
• Salagama
• Pattusali

Notes

1. Mines 1984, pp. 62–64
2. Mines, Mattison (1994). Public Faces, Private Lives: Community and Individuality in South India. University of California Press. p. 113. ISBN 9780520084797.
3. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4.
4. "National Commission for Backward Classes". www.ncbc.nic.in. Retrieved 26 June 2023.
5. Mines 1984, p. 11.
6. Martial races of undivided India by Vidya Prakash Tyagi 2009 Page 278 https://www.google.com/books?id=vRwS6FmS2g0C
7. David, Kenneth (1977). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology). De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977). p. 188. ISBN 9027979596.
8. Mines 1984, pp. 54–55
9. Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 491. ISBN 978-8-12241-198-0.
10. V, Sudarsen; Reddy, G. Prakash; M, Suryanarayana (1987). Religion and Society in South India: a volume in honour of Prof. N. Subba Reddy, V. Sudarsen, G. Prakash Reddy, M. Suryanarayana. B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 97. ISBN 9788170184355.
11. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4.
12. David, Kenneth (1977). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia (World Anthropology). De Gruyter Mouton; Reprint 2011 edition (1 December 1977). p. 188. ISBN 9027979596.
13. Kan̲n̲iyappan̲, Civa (1996). Oṭṭakkūttar pāṭalkaḷum viḷakkamum [Critical interpretation of the poems of Otṭạkkūttar, 12th century Tamil poet] (in Tamil). Mullai Nilaiyam. p. 51. சூலமும் மழுவும் கொண்ட சிவபெருமானவர். அதனால் அவருடைய பெயர் முதலியார் என்பது. அவர் வழியில் தோன்றினமையால் செங்குந்தர்களுக்கு முதலியார் என்ற பெயரைக் கொடுத்து அப்பெயராலேயே வழங்கப்படுகின்றது
14. Barnett, Marguerite Ross (2015). The Politics of Cultural Nationalism in South India. Princeton University Press. p. 236. ISBN 978-1-40086-718-9.
15. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-53810-686-0.
16. Vink, Markus (2005). Encounters on the Opposite Coast: The Dutch East India Company and the Nayaka State of Madurai in the Seventeenth Century. Brill. p. 218. ISBN 9789004272620.
17. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Historical Dictionary of the Tamils. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 231. ISBN 978-1-53810-686-0.
18. Ghose, Rajeshwari (1996). The Tyāgarāja Cult in Tamilnāḍu: A Study in Conflict and Accommodation. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 78–82. ISBN 9788120813915.
19. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and Weavers in Medieval South India. Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-561705-4. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
20. Vijaya Ramaswamy (1982). "Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History. The Indian Economic & Social History Review". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 19 (1): 47–62. doi:10.1177/001946468201900103.
21. Sinopoli, Carla M. (2003). The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India, c.1350–1650. Cambridge University Press. p. 188. ISBN 9781139440745.
22. S. Sankaranarayanan, S. S. Ramachandra Murthy, B. Rajendra Prasad, D. Kiran Kranth Choudary (2000). Śāṅkaram: recent researches on Indian culture : Professor Srinivasa Sankaranarayanan festchrift. Harman Pub. House. p. 114.
23. Manickam, V. (2001). Kongu Nadu, a history up to A.D. 1400. Makkal Veliyeedu.
24. Asher, Catherine (2006). India Before Europe. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521809047.
25. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (2017). Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India. Routledge. pp. 172–174. ISBN 9781351558259.
26. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press.^{[page needed]}
27. Mines 1984
28. de Neve, Geert (2005). The Everyday Politics of Labour: Working Lives in India's Informal Economy. Berghahn Books. ISBN 9788187358183.^{[page needed]}
29. Science and Empire: Essays in Indian Context, 1700–1947 By Deepak Kumar^{[full citation needed]}
30. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1985). Textiles and weavers in medieval South India. Oxford University Press.^{[page needed]}
31. Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2004). "Far-flung fabrics - Indian textiles in ancient maritime trade". In Barnes, Ruth (ed.). Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies. Routledge. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-13443-040-6.
32. Vijaya Ramaswamy, ed. (2017). Migrations in Medieval and Early Colonial India. Taylor & Francis. p. 28-33. ISBN 9781351558259.
33. Mines, Mattison (August 1982). "Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India". American Ethnologist. 9 (3): 467–484. doi:10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020. JSTOR 643998.
34. Mines 1984, pp. 15
35. Ramaswamy, Vijaya (1982). "Weaver Folk Traditions as a Source of History". The Indian Economic & Social History Review. 19: 47–62. doi:10.1177/001946468201900103. S2CID 145467633.
36. Mines 1984, pp. 73–98
37. Mines 1984, pp. 171
38. Mines 1984, pp. 167
39. Dr. Kumar Vadivel. "Water cutting ceremony of the Nallur Kandasamy temple". The Island (Sri Lanka). Nallur, Sri Lanka: Ministry of Hindu Religious Affairs, Sri Lanka. Retrieved 12 August 2011.
40. "Nallur Kandasamy Temple festival begins". TamilNet. Nallur, Sri Lanka. Retrieved 10 August 2005.
41. Mines 1984, pp. 172
42. Mines 1984, pp. 24–25
43. Mines 1984, pp. 169
44. Mines 1984, pp. 27
45. Mines, Mattison (August 1982). "Models of Caste and the Left-Hand Division in South India". American Ethnologist. 9 (3): 477. doi:10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00020. JSTOR 643998.
46. Sustainer (4 September 2009). "கொங்க குலகுருக்கள்: கொங்கு குலகுருக்கள் - 48. இறையமங்கலம் கைக்கோலர் மடம்". கொங்க குலகுருக்கள். Retrieved 7 January 2023.
47. Mines 1984, p. 13.
48. "List of Backward Classes approved by Government of Tamil Nadu". Government of Tamil Nadu.
49. "Central list of backward classes". Government of India.
50. M.S., Joseph (1996). Inclusion of Sengunthar community in the list of Other Backward Classes for reservation in public service. Government of Kerala.
51. Senguntha Prabandha Thiratu. Retrieved 4 December 2011.
52. The Indian Economic and Social History Review-Delhi School of Economics. Vikas Publishing House. 1982.
53. Spuler, Bertold (1975). Tamil literature – Kamil Zvelebil. BRILL. ISBN 978-9004041905. Retrieved 4 December 2011.

References

• Mines, Mattison (1984). The Warrior Merchants: Textiles, Trade and Territory in South India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521267144.

Further reading

• Irschick, Eugene F. (1986). Tamil revivalism in the 1930s.
• Irschick, Eugene F. (1994). Dialogue and History: Constructing South India, 1795–1895. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520914322.
• Lucassen, Jan; Lucassen, Leo (2014). Globalising Migration History: The Eurasian Experience. BRILL. ISBN 978-9-00427-136-4.