The Fursan unit, or the early Muslim cavalry unit, was the cavalry forces of the Rashidun army during the Muslim conquest of Syria. The division, which formed the early cavalry corps of the caliphate, was commonly nicknamed the Mobile Guard (Arabic: طليعة متحركة, Tulay'a mutaharikkah or Arabic: الحرس المتحرك, al-Haras al-Mutaharikkah) or the Marching Army ( جيش الزحف, "Jaish al‐Zaḥf"). These units were commanded by Khalid ibn al-Walid, an early caliphate cavalry commander who organized the unit into military staff – a simple beginning of what later in military history would emerge as the general staff. Khalid had collected from all the regions in which he had fought – Arabia, Iraq, Syria and Palestine.
Later, after the Early Muslim conquests, portions of the Rashidun cavalry rebelled against the central caliphate in Kharijites revolutionary movements.[2] Historian Al-Jahiz remarked the Kharijites were feared for their cavalry charge with lances, which he claimed could break any defensive line, and almost never lost when pitted against an equal number of opponents.[2] These Kharijites sects, believed by most scholars of Islam to have been started by Hurqus ibn Zuhayr as-Sa'di, known as Dhu Khuwaishirah at-Tamimi,[3] would plague the rest of the history of the Rashidun, Umayyad, and Abbasid caliphates with endemic rebellions.
This cavalry unit almost certainly rode the purebred Arabian horse, by fact the quality breeding of horses were held so dearly by the early caliphates who integrated traditions of Islam with their military practice.[4][5][6][7] These horses were also a common breed amongst the Arab community during the 6th to 7th century.[4]
Muhammad's cavalry, the predecessor of the caliphate's, is recorded to have had 10,000 horsemen during the Expedition of Tabuk.[8] The Muslim cavalry units were commonly called Fursan.[8]
After the decisive victory at the Battle of Ajnadayn in 634 CE, Khalid, from his Iraqi army, which after Ajnadayn numbered about 8000 men, organised a force of 4000 horsemen, which the early historians refer to as The Army of Sharpeners.[9][page needed][10] Khalid kept this force under his personal command. Aside from horses for use in attacks, the Rashidun cavalry also rode camels for transportation and in defensive battles, as camels could repel even heavy cavalry such as Byzantine and Sassanid cataphracts, and are large enough to withstand a heavy cavalry's charge.[11] At the onset of the battle of Yarmuk in 636 AD, around 3,000 cavalry reinforcements were sent to the Syrian front, including those from Yemen led by Qays ibn Makshuh.[12]
Mahmud Shakir said the cavalry corps called al-Haras al-Mutaharikkah, had a distinguishing role in the battle of Yarmuk.[13] The first recorded use of this mounted force was during the Siege of Damascus (634). During the battle of Yarmuk Khalid ibn Walid used them to his advantage at critical points in the battle. With their ability to engage and disengage, and turn back and attack again from the flank or rear, the Mobile Guard inflicted a shattering defeat of the Byzantine army. This strong mobile striking force was often used in later years as an advance guard.[9][page needed] It could rout opposing armies with its greater mobility that gave it an upper hand against any Byzantine army. One of the victories of the mobile guard was at Battle of Hazir in 637 CE under the command of Khalid, in which not a single Byzantine soldier survived.[10] The Mobile guard remained under the personal command of Khalid ibn Walid for about four years (634-638 CE) until Khalid was dismissed from army by Caliph Umar after the completion of the conquest of the Levant.
With the dismissal of Khalid, this powerful cavalry regiment was dismantled. One of its brilliant commanders Qa'qa' ibn 'Amr al-Tamimi had been sent to the Persian front in 637 CE along with reinforcements for the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, in which he played an important part. A part of it was later sent to the Persian front as reinforcements for the Muslim conquest of Persia. Many of its members died in the plague during 639-640 CE which killed approximately 25,000 Muslims in Syria. This included many sub-commanders of the mobile guard like Zirrar ibn Azwar, those who survived accompanied the army under the command of Amr ibn al-'As to conquer Egypt. After the conquest of Egypt, the Rashidun Army continued to invade and besiege Bahnasa, as the enemy were reinforced by an arrival of 50,000 according to the report of al-Maqqari.[14][15] The siege dragged for months, until Khalid ibn al Walid commanded Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar and other commanders to intensify the siege and assign them to lead around 10,000 Companions of the Prophet, with 70 among them were veterans of battle of Badr.[16] They besiege the city for 4 months as Dhiraar leading 200 horsemens, while Zubayr ibn Al-Awwam lead 300 horsemen, while the other commanders such as Miqdad, Abdullah ibn Umar and Uqba ibn Amir al-Juhani leading similar number with Dhiraar with each command 200 horsemens.[16] After Bahnasa finally subdued,[16] where they camped in a village which later renamed as Qays village, in honor of Qays ibn Harith, the overall commander of these Rashidun cavalry.[17] The Byzantines and their copt allies showering the Rashidun army with arrows and stones from the city wall, As the bitter fights has rages on as casualties increases,[Notes 1] until the Rashidun overcame the defenders, as Dhiraar, the first emerge, came out from the battle with his entire body stained in blood, while confessed he has slayed about 160 Byzantine soldiers during the battle.[16] Chroniclers recorded the Rashidun army has finally breached the city gate under either Khalid ibn al-Walid or Qays ibn Harith finally managed to breach the gate and storming the city and forcing surrender to the inhabitant.[Notes 2][Notes 3]
As Muslim conquests of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula progressed.[25] they also brought their breeds of horse to Africa and Spain in the form of Arabian horses, Barb horses, and to a lesser extent the Turkoman horse[26]
Cavalry were highly regarded by the military rulers of early Medina, as the early Medina Islam constitution and the Caliphates' put emphasis by giving the cavalry troopers at least two portions of war spoils and booty compared to regular soldier, while regular infantry only received only a single portion.[27] The core of the caliphate's mounted division was an elite unit which early Muslim historians named Tulai'a Mutaharrika (طليعة متحركة), or the mobile guard.[1]
Contrary to popular belief among historians, that the Arabians during the 6th century were unarmored light cavalry raiders, Eduard Alofs argues that the Arab horsemen, whether they are Rashiduns, Ghassanids, or Lakhmids were in fact heavily armoured elite nobles,[Notes 4] akin to Cataphract in armors.[Notes 5] The Muslim army in time of Muhammad also had a particular type of body armour called "al-Kharnaq", which was characterized as flexible.[30]
For their armaments, the Early Arabic horsemens are theoretically used the following arms in battle:
Arab sword of various types, one of the most famous types is as-Sayf al-Qala'i, a curved sword type.[30] Muhammad owned this type of sword which preserved in modern-day in Topkapı Palace museum, the sword blade were around 100 cm length which has inscription in its hilt : "Hadha Sayf al-Mashrafi li Bayt Muhammad Rasulullah". The Indian manufactured swords which used by Arabs during Muhammad era were straight and double edged.[31] certain cavalry commanders such as Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib, also known to possess multiple swords.[32][33] while Khalid ibn al-Walid reportedly brought at least nine swords during single battle.
Lance used by Rashidun cavalry by swinging them during close-combat, such as in the record of record of Tabari.[34] Early caliphate cavalry held their Lance overhead posture with both hands.[35] A personal lance belong to Muhammad consisted a lance which head was made of brass.[36]
Mounted archery with flying gallop was practiced casually by Rashidun caliphate onwards,[37][38] as it was used by early Muslim warriors such as Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, who are reported as an expert for retreating mounted shot[39] Their quivers were reportedly contained 50 arrows.[36] Leaders and commanders also obliged the usage of bows, as there are records of Muhammad himself of usage of the bow during the battle of Uhud.[36]
Javelins also used by caliphate horsemens' their weapon. Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, a seasoned Muhajirun and early convert who always brought horses during battles,[40] were recorded have killed his enemies with javelin in at least in two occasions during his life. The first occasion when he recorded has killed Quraish nobleman Ubaydah ibn Sa'id from Umayyad clan during the Battle of Badr, who was wearing a full set of armor and Aventail that protected his entire body and face.[27] Zubayr hurled his javelin aiming at the unprotected eye of Ubaydah and killed him immediately.[27] The second occasion is during the Battle of Khaybar, Zubayr fought in a duel against a Jewish nobleman Yassir which Zubayr killed with a powerful javelin strike.[27] Firsthand witnesses reported that Zubayr brandishing himself across the battlefield during the Battle of Hunayn while hung two javelins in his back.[27]
Rounded shield to protect the rider from arrows.[41]
Armour & horse armour
Regarding their defensive and supporting equipments, despite there is not yet archeological proof of Arabian armory before the era of Ayyubid and Mamluk found, literary sources indicates the Arabs already using body armour, such as coat of Chain mail called Dir that was found from the literary sources from the era before the advent of Islam,[42] or as an Umayyad poetries that mentioned the armour of the caliphate army during caliph Umar until Umayyad era.[41] During the Battle of Uhud, Jami'at Tirmidhi recorded Zubayr ibn al-Awwam testimony that Muhammad wearing two layers of mail coat.[43][44] However, there is still not yet archaeological founding of Arabic armor in such time.[45] Waqidi recorded the Qurayshite Arab horsemens also using horse armor which held by Crupper on the back of the horse, which are used by a Qurayshite warrior named Hubayr ibn Abi Wahb al Makhzumi during the battle of the Trench.[46]
The Muslim Arabic cavalry during early caliphate already knew of stirrups. However, caliph Umar forbid or neglected the use of stirrups for his soldiers as riding without stirrups could train riders better for horsemanship.[47][48] Despite the rejection or neglect of stirrups,[49][50] Arab cavalry, especially the Kharijites group who will revolt after the conquest, were feared for their fearless charge, which, as Adam Ali mentioned in his work on al-Jahiz, "can throw any defense line into disarray".[2] Military history reconstructors like Marcus Junkelmann have determined from historical reenactment that mounted close combat specialists like Mubarizuns could fight effectively on top of their mounts without stirrups.[49] This is used by Alofs as an argument to debunk the assertion held by most historians that horsemen cannot fight effectively in close combat without the use of stirrups.[49]
Inscriptions of Hima mountain
David Nicolle brought the theory of Pre-Islamic Arabia Arabic-speaking peoples adoption of armory among horsemen as he quoted Claude Cahen, who categorically stated that horse armor was very common in the early Islamic period.[51] Nicolle thought those Arabians were exposed to external culture influences such as from external military influence from Turkish Uyghurs, originating in Xinjiang, which then spread further to Iran and beyond, eventually reaching the Middle east,[51] Nicolle divided the evidence from three pinpoint areas:
Dura-Europos, located in Syrian borderlands of the Byzantine Empire, where horse armor of bronze scales, Roman Syria or Parthian origin, from the 3rd century AD are found.[51] Although Nicolle dismissed the Byzantines as being unlikely as heavily armoured cavalry were not Byzantine tradition in the first place, and only adopted such in the late era, unlike the Persians.[51]
Shabwa, Yemen, as Nicole pointed there is carved plaque depicting armoured cavalry, both the rider and the horse, which Nicolle surmised originated from 6th–early 7th AD, and theoretically were Asawiran Sassanids heavy cavalry who garrisoned Yemen for decades before the expansion of Islam circa 570 to 630 AD.[51] While Ogden pointed out Yemen were also known as an important coastal sea trade between India and the Red Sea since ancient times and were exposed to the latter's metallurgy.[52] the team of Bir Hima archeology excavation and researchers has found southwestern edge of the modern city of Najran, a depiction of a heavily built horse similar in form to the extinct Nisean horse breed which rode by Zaweyan elite troops of Sassanids of the 6th century BCE, which according to the team, indicating Persian influence.[53]Elwyn Hartley Edwards also added it is possible that the Arabs also had influence in the breeding of legendary Nisean horses, since geographically the breed theoritically was bred in western Iran of Medes.[54] Edwards further remarked the possibility that the Nisean were also infused with Arabian horse breed.[54]
Wadi Aday, 8 km south of Muttrah, Oman.,[51] where Nicolle pointed out many armoured horsemen carvings, armed with spears and a sword, that, according to Nicole, traditionally identified as Arabs.[51] according to researchers, south-eastern Arabia including Oman has for a long time been exposed to Iron since the Iron Age, which presumably is from external influence such as India, just as for Yemen.[55] Regarding this theory, Nicolle suggested the horse armour adopted by Pre-Islamic Oman and Yemen Arabs which he implied from Sasanian Yemen influence.[56]
Aside from those three locations that are pointed by Nicolle, Bir Hima archaeological researchers team also found evidence of Arabian armoured cavalry in the form of hundreds, if not thousands of petroglyphs in Bir Hima, which is located about 30 km northeast of Najran.[53] The excavation sites are dominated by images of mounted cavalry that are highly stylized, which the researchers theorized riding Arabian breed horses.[53] The cavalrymen are armed with long lances, swords, Sayf swords and khanjar daggers which are worn in the waist.[53] The team also notice that there are indication the carvings of those horsemen probably wearing something like helmets and cutlasses.[53]
Before the advent of Islam, banners as tools for signaling had already been employed by the pre-Islamic Arab tribes and the Byzantines. Early Muslim army naturally deployed banners for the same purpose.[57] Early Islamic flags, however, greatly simplified its design by using plain color, due to the Islamic prescriptions on aniconism.[58] According to the Islamic traditions, the Quraysh had a black liwāʾ and a white-and-black rāya.[59] It further states that Muhammad had an ʿalam in white nicknamed "the Young Eagle" (Arabic: العقابal-ʿuqāb); and a rāya in black, said to be made from his wife Aisha's head-cloth.[60] This larger flag was known as " the Banner of the Eagle" (Arabic: الراية العقابal-rāyat al-ʻuqāb), as well as "the Black Banner" (Arabic: الراية السوداءar-rāyat as-sawdāʾ).[61] Other examples are the prominent Arab military commander 'Amr ibn al-'As using red banner,[62] and the Khawarij rebels using red banner as well.[63] Banners of the early Muslim army in general, however, employed a variety of colors, both singly and in combination.[64]
According to modern historian David Nicolle in Warrior magazine series published by Osprey Publishing, as the caliphate army were mainly consisted of tribal based corps and divisions, most of the following flags appeared in the Battle of Siffin on both sides:
As the mainstay strategy of the Rashidun army were interchangeably and derived from Islamic teaching, the main doctrine of the Rashidun cavalry also borrowed from the religious ethic itself, as example the aim for building such military sophistication were in fact aimed to cause fear and discourage the enemy from offering resistance, and if possible, cause the enemy to submit peacefully, as it is said the main idea from Verse Quran chapter al-Anfal verse[Quran8:60].[65]
Aside from that distinguishing role which characterized by the Mobile Guard cavalry were their task to plugging the gaps between Muslim ranks to avoid enemy penetration, which they practiced during the battle of the Yarmuk.[13] During the reign of caliph Umar. The caliph instructed Salman Ibn Rabi'ah al-Bahili to establish systematic military program to maintain the quality of caliphate mounts. Salman enlisted most of the steeds within realm of caliphate to undergo such steps:[66]
Recording number and quality of horses available.
Differences between the Arabian purebreed and the hybrid breeds was to be carefully noted.
Close combat while changing their seat position on the back of moving horse, facing backwards.
At the end of the program, both riders and horses obligated to enlisted in formal competition sponsored by Diwan al-Jund which consisted into two category:
Racing competition to measure the speed and stamina of each hybrids.[37] This racing activities are also encouraged by caliphate commanders such as Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah who himself also engaged in such sport.[68]
Acrobat competition to measure the ability of the horses for difficult maneuvers during war.[37]
Additionally, In the wartime, there are special trainings established cavalry divisions were obliged to undertook:
simulated combat operation raids during the winter and summer seasons, known as Tadrib al-Shawati wa al-Sawd'if, which were intended to maintain the quality of each cavalry forces, while also maintain the pressures towards the Byzantines, Persians, and other caliphate enemies while there is no major military campaign.[37]
Special drills that required for particular operasion, such as during the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah, The Muslim cavalry undergo drill training that involved by maneuvering their horses nearby elephant dummy statues, to train the horses so they did not afraid during the battle as they were tasked to charge against Sasanian Empire elephant corps[69]
Cavalry archery
Alof theorized "Mubarizun" elite division, a unit specialized in close combat duels, also used archery in close-combat duels for maximum arrow penetration against opponent armor.[70] This select few apparatus of mounted soldiers who particularly skilled in duel were tasked to find the enemy generals or field officers, in order to kidnap or slay them in close combat, so the enemy will lose their commanding figure amidst of battle.[71] Aside from fighting with swords, lances, or maces, these duel specialists also possessed a unique ability to use archery in close combat, where Alofs theorized that in mid range about five meters from the adversary, the duelists will exchange his lance with his bow and shoot the enemy from close range to achieve maximum penetration, while the duelist held the lance strapped between right leg and saddle.[72] In fact, James Hardy theorized based on his quote from John Haldon and Romilly Jenkins, one of the decisive main factor for the Rashidun historical victory in battle of Yarmuk were due to their superb cavalry archers.[73] While James Francis LePree has written that the factor of "unquestionably great cavalry skill of the Arabs' horse archers" during the battle of Yarmuk.[74]
Cavalry archers also used to bait the opposing army from their position, which were reported by Tabari during the battle of Nahavand, when Tulayha planned to lure the bulk of enemy forces by sending armoured cavalry archers forth and shooting them while retreating to bait them to the favorable terrain for Muslim army to fight the Sassanids.[75]
Cavalry usage during siege warfare
The tactics used by Iyad ibn Ghanm in his Mesopotamian campaign were similar to those employed by the Muslims in Palestine, though in Iyad's case the contemporary accounts reveal his specific modus operandi, particularly in Raqqa.[76] The operation to capture that city entailed positioning cavalry forces near its entrances, preventing its defenders and residents from leaving or rural refugees from entering.[76] Concurrently, the remainder of Iyad's forces cleared the surrounding countryside of supplies and took captives.[76] These dual tactics were employed in several other cities in al-Jazira.[76] They proved effective in gaining surrenders from targeted cities running low on supplies and whose satellite villages were trapped by hostile troops.[76]
Ubadah ibn al-Samit, another Rashidun commander, is also recorded to have developed his own distinct strategy which involved the use of cavalry during siege warfare. During a siege, Ubadah would dig a large hole, deep enough to hide a considerable number of horsemen near an enemy garrison, and hid his cavalry there during the night. When the sun rose and the enemy city opened their gates for the civilians in the morning, Ubadah and his hidden cavalry then emerged from the hole and stormed the gates as the unsuspecting enemy could not close the gate before Ubadah's horsemen entered. This strategy was used by Ubadah during the Siege of Laodicea[77][78] and Siege of Alexandria.[77]
Mounts
The possession of horse among Arab peoples were long time traditionally considered as symbol of wealth and prestige.[79] The musing of pure Arabian horse breed in Arab community social standing also found in the dialogue between caliph Umar with one of his cavalry commander, Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib, which recorded in the Al-ʿIqd al-Farīd anthology of adab authored by Ibn Abd Rabbih.[80] According to Schiettecatte, Earliest osteological evidence for the horses in Arabia were found in Bahrain in a middle of the 1000 BC.[81] The developments of early cavalry regiments within caliphate were effected due to the availability of the rich Meccan Arabs to field sufficient horses.[79]
Notables among Arab Muslims, especially those of Companions of the Prophet, were recorded possessed multiple horses & camels privately, such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, who reportedly possessed at least 16 horses which all named.[82] This practice of possessing multiple horses were not unlike Amr ibn Ma'adi Yakrib, the cavalry commander who had mythical reputation, also had at least four named horses of his own,[32] which number grown further as later the governor of Basra rewarded Amr with foal pregnant mare with preserved pedigree from al-Ghabra type (dust colored type).[83] Meanwhile, other warriors like Zubayr ibn al-Awwam owns a swooping number of 1,000 horses in his private stable.[84] while on the other hand, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf reportedly possessed hundreds of horses and 1,000 camels, [85] and Dhiraar ibn al-Azwar, who also reportedly owns about 1,000 camels even before embracing Islam and pledge his allegiance to the Caliphate.[Notes 6]
Caliphate Arabian noble cavalry[Notes 7] almost certainly rode the legendary purebred Arabian horse, by fact the quality breeding of horses were held so dearly by the early caliphates who integrated traditions of Islam with their military practice.[4][5][6][7] The soldiers who possessed the pureblood Arabian horse even had the right to acquire bigger war spoils after battles than the soldiers who used other breeds or hybrid breed horses.[87] The horses are culturally related with war in pre-Islamic Arabia as described in the long poems by Antarah ibn Shaddad and Dorayd bin Al Soma.[88]
These horses are also pretty common breed amongst Arab community during 6th to 7th century.[4] This special breed of steed were famous for their speed which allowed for large-scale conquests of the caliphate during their early days.[4][47] The Arabian breed is forged by the harsh life in desert and raised by nomadic Bedouins who spread it throughout their travels, and erect it as a symbol of social and cultural status, in parallel with a martial selection.[89] This breed are known as a hot-blooded breed that are known for their competitiveness. Long withstanding periods of Arabian nomadic society closeness with the horses also contributed to fertility of equestrian masters which produced best class horse breed in Arabia.[90] The phenomenal speed, stamina, intelligence, along with very well documented pedigrees quality even for modern era standard,[91][92] caused the Rashidun leaders to initiate a formal programs to distinguish them from inferior hybrids with unknown pedigrees including horses recently captured from the defeated enemies.[37] Earlier attempts of Muslim horse-breeding were found in the aftermath of Siege series of Khaybar fotresses when the Muslims acquired massive booties of horses from the Jewish castles. In response Muhammad personally instructed the breeding separations between purebred Arabian and the hybrid-class steeds.[67] in later cases, such tradition of glorifying the breed of pure Arabian steeds are recorded by caliphate soldiers during the conquest of Persia.[93] While another detailed example were Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, who owned many horses.[84] The most famous Arabian horse that owned and being named by az-Zubayr were al-Ya'sūb, which he ride in the Battle of Badr.[94]al-Ya'sūb pedigree was preserved carefully by az-Zubayr's clansmens, banu Asad ibn Abd al-Uzza branch from Quraysh tribe, who create a system of "horse-clan", the "horse-clan" system of recording their horses ancestry and lineage are meant carefully maintain the horses genealogical purity and quality while also manage to keep the steeds genealogy traceable, as in al-Ya'sūb case, who belong to a horse-clan namely al-Asjadi.[95] the al-Asjadi horse clan were keep by az-Zubayr for generations.[95]
Al-Baihaqi transmitted in Shuab al-iman about "Birdhaun breed", or horse of poor breed that are hailing not Arabian breed, more specifically a Turkish horses breed, which caliph Umar warned his governors against riding such horses.[96] According to Bayhaqi, prohibiting a breed considered second-rate makes it obvious that to ride horses of the best Arab breed would be even a greater sign of pride.[96] The Arabian theory were justified in the medieval tradition as Mamluk Furusiyya treatises of hippiatry distinguished lineages of Arabian horses were named based on their geographical provenance (Hejaz, Najd, Yemen, Bilād al‑Shām, Jezirah, Iraq), the noblest breed, according to Ibn al‑Mundhir were the Hijazi breed.[97]
The early caliphate army preferred mares than stallion as warhorses.[98] Khalid ibn al-Walid were said preferred mare by reason it believed that the mares were more fitt for cavalry combats.[98] The specific explanation is that mares are not as vocal as either horses or geldings, and the Arabs often believed mares did not need to stop to urinate, which saves times of the army mobilization.[98] Another reason for the Arabian cavalry to uniformly prefer mares during battles because bringing stallions during combat can potentially disrupt the riders rank as the mares in heat can incite stallions libido and caused the stallion difficult to control.[98]
Caliphate cavalry recruited from Al-Mahra tribe were known for their military prowess and skilled horsemen that often won battles with minimal or no casualties at all, which Amr ibn al As in his own words praised them as "peoples who kill without being killed",[Notes 8]
Ibn Abd al-Hakam remarks their relative minimal casualties whenever engaged in military operations. Amr was amazed by these proud warriors for their ruthless fighting skill and efficiency During Muslim conquest where they spearheaded Muslim army during the Battle of Heliopolis, the Battle of Nikiou, and Siege of Alexandria.[99] Their commanders, Abd al-sallam ibn Habira al-Mahri were entrusted by 'Amr ibn al-'As to lead the entire Muslim army during the Arab conquest of north Africa. Abd al-sallam defeated the Byzantine imperial army in Libya, and throughout these campaigns Al-Mahra were awarded much land in Africa as recognition of their bravery.[99] When Amr established the town of Fustat, he further rewarded Al-Mahri members additional land in Fustat which then became known as Khittat Mahra or the Mahra quarter.[99] This land was used by the Al-Mahra tribes as a garrison.[99]
During the turmoil of Second Fitna, more than 600 Mahranites were sent to North Africa to fight Byzantines and the Berber Kharijite revolts.[99]
Camels
Aside from horses, Rashidun cavalry used camels as their means of transportation as they want to save their horses energy, while outside the battle, the camels were used to transport the provisions of the soldiers, as each soldiers of the caliphate were expected to provide his own provisions at the very least outside the main army provided by the leaders or wealthy soldiers.[36]
During the battle, the Rashidun cavalry immediately change their ride to the horses, while their camels are hobbled along the defensive perimeters of Muslim army.[11] Their camels are used defensively during battle as the bulk of camel lines perimeter will blunt the enemy heavy cavalry charge[11] Sometimes, these Arab cavaliers also recorded to ride their camels simultaneously with their horse in one battle depending on the situation, as recorded in the report about Muslim horsemen named Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, when he fought on the Battle of the Yarmuk, at one point he is reported charging with his horse, breaching the Byzantine army line.[100] While in the same battle, he also reported has changed his ride to camel, while fighting defensively and praying at the same time.[101]
Aside from carrying provisions, transportations, and for battle usage, the camel mares were valued for their milk production for the warhorses daily nourishments.[79] The camels milk reserved as substitution for the Rashidun army horses drink whenever water supply unavailable.
[79] Two camel mares milk were expected to nourish one horse each day.[79]
A map showing one of a series of possible itineraries of Khalid's march to Syria from Iraq
Desperate caravaners are known to have consumed camels' urine and to have slaughtered them when their resources were exhausted.[102]
Around 634, after the clash at the Battle of Firaz against intercepting Byzantine forces, caliph Abu Bakr immediately instructed Khalid to reinforce the contingents of Abu Ubaydah, Amr ibn al-As, Mu'awiyah, and Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan which started to invade Syria. Khalid immediately started his nearly impossible journey with his elite forces after leaving Muthanna ibn Haritha as his deputy in Iraq and instructed his soldiers to make each camel drink as much as possible before they started the six-day nonstop march without resupply.[103][Notes 9] In the end, Khalid managed to reach Suwa spring and immediately defeated the Byzantine garrison in Arak, Syria,[105] who were surprised by Khalid's force's sudden emergence from the desert.[106]
According to Hugh Kennedy, historians across the ages assessed this daring journey with various expressions of amazement. Classical Muslim historians praised the marching force's perseverance as a miracle work of Allah, while most western modern historians regard this as solely the genius of Khalid.[107] It is Khalid, whose, in Hugh Kennedy's opinion, imaginative thinking effected this legendary feat.[107] The historian Moshe Gil calls the march "a feat which has no parallel" and a testament to "Khalid's qualities as an outstanding commander",[108] while Laura Veccia Vaglieri dismissed the adventure of Khalid as never having happened as Vaglieri thought such journey were logically impossible.[109] Nevertheless, military historian Richard G. Davis explained that Khalid imaginatively employed camel supply trains to make this journey possible.[103] Those well hydrated camels that accompanied his journey were proven before in the Battle of Ullais for such a risky journey.[110] Khalid resorted to slaughtering many camels for provisions for his desperate army.[103]
Rashidun army camels also bore offspring while marching to the battle, as Tabari recorded the Rashidun vanguard commander Aqra' ibn Habis, testified before the Battle of al-Anbar, the camels belongs to his soldiers were about to give birth. However, since the Aqra' would not halt the operation, he instructed his soldiers to carry the newborn camels on the rumps of adult camels.[111]
Mahranite camelier corps
Amr ibn al-As led a ruthless cavalry corps from tribes of Al-Mahra who were famous for their "invincible battle skills on top of their mounts", during the conquests of Egypt and north Africa[Notes 10]. Al-Mahra tribes were experts in camelry and famed for their high-class Mehri camel breed which were renowned for their speed, agility and toughness.[99]
Hima breeding ground
Arabian Camel herd grazing near the Riyadh River, southeast Diriyah
Hima natural reserve which instituted by the early leaders of Islam caliphate were one of the main factor for their army to be able to keep supplying mounts in large numbers.[79] This breeding institution were formed by the caliphs Nejd, where the steppe vegetation apparent in Arabia.[79] The Hima breeding fields were consisted of large area maintained the vegetative and the animals could lived and bred completely free, as no one are allowed to enter the Hima except the rightful owner of the animals which bred on there.[79]
The history of Hima breeding grounds preservation as an effort to supply the army with mounts were rooted from the early Islam period, where Modern Islamic studies researchers theorized institution of Hima by caliph Umar, who inspired by the earliest Hima established in Medina during the time of Muhammad.[112] Muhammad has declared the valley of Naqi (Wadi an-Naqi) to be reserved for the army mounts usage.[113] Another known Hima breeding grounds during the caliphate were in Kufa, which supervised by Rabi' al Kinda, father in law of the son of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, governor of Kufa during caliphate of Umar and Uthman.[114] Muhammad himself instructed that some of private property at the outskirts of Medina was transformed into Hima.[115]Banu Kilab tribe from Hawazin confederation were known to manage the Ḥima Ḍarīyya in Nejd.[116][117][119]
Caliph Umar particularly ordered the extensive establishments of Hima in the conquered areas in Iraq and Levant after the battle of Yarmuk and the battle of Qadisiyyah, as the Rashidun caliphate gained large swath of territory after those two battles.[79] Another reason the caliph Umar moved Hima from Medina was the increasing military demand for camels for which the lands near Medina no longer sufficed.[112] According to classical Muslim sources, caliph Umar acquired some fertile land in Arabia which were deemed fit for large-scale camel breeding to be established as Hima, government-reserved land property used as pasture to raise camels that were being prepared to be sent to the front line for Jihad conquests.[120] Early sources recorded that the Hima of Rabadha and Diriyah produced 4.000 war camels annually during the reign of Umar, while during the reign of Uthman, both Hima lands further expanded until al-Rabadha Hima alone could produce 4.000 war camels.[121] At the time of Uthman's death, there were said to be around 1.000 war camels already prepared in al-Rabadhah.[121]
The Hima breeding program of stockbreeding were soon adopted by the Ghassanids Arabs who supplied horses to the Byzantines.[79] The Lakhmids Arabs in Iraq who used the Persian breed as their horses, also adopted the Hima system with success.[79] The Hima breeding grounds in Nejd survived until the 20th century during the reign of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia government abolished those reserve places in 1957.[122] The reason of the abolition were presumed by Shamekh as the effort of Saudi government to encourage sendentarization.[122]
The Mammalsbeast of burden brought by these desert warriors on horseback in massive scale unanimously agreed by historians and breeding researchers as bringing some degree of cultural influences towards their subjugated lands, whether it by the massive scale utilization of dromedaries,[126][130] or their horses, as Muslim conquests of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula brought large numbers of Arabian horses,[25] The regular supply of horses from Hima breeding grounds has taken effect particularly after Muslim conquest of Persia, North Africa, and central Asia.[79]
The Barb horse may have come with the Umayyad Caliphate army who settled in the Guadalquivir valley, as both the Arabian strain were brought by the Muslim empires to Europe, which implied by Margareth Greely, through military mean.[127] The Barb horse spread theory were supported by Helen Goldstein who theorized about how the conqueror of Spain, Tariq ibn Ziyad brought the Barb horses along with the Arabian strain during the Muslim conquest of Iberia, as the Barb horses are favored for spare mounts by forces of Tariq as Goldstein theorized the Muslim invaders prized the Arabian breed so much, so they keep them most of the times, while they used the Barbs for trivial routines. The Barbs brought by them crossbreeded through ages with native Spanish horses.[131] Barbs crossbreedings with Spanish stock under 300 years of Umayyad patronage has developed the Andalusian horse (and the Lusitano) breeds.[132] Regarding the Portuguese claimed Lusitano breed, Juan Valera-Lemait noted the evidence of the exchange of blood between the Iberian breeds with Barb breeds were mutually beneficial, to the point that modern Barb more resembling the Iberian breed stock as well as the criollo horses of South America. while the introduction to America continent were related to the Muslim invasion medieval era, when Spain and Portugal were in constant war with the Berber invaders where horse and horsemanship had become finely attuned to the war exercises. Thus resulted the Conquistadors introduced and dispersed the breed throughout America.[133]
The successful Hima breeding programs of the early caliphates has effected the inexhaustable supply of manpowers and warhorses, which extended to the Mamluk Sultanate 150 years of cavalry superiority before the advent of firearms.[79]
Arabian horses also spread to the rest of the world via the Ottoman Empire, which rose in 1299. this Turkish empire obtained many Arabian horses through trade, diplomacy and war.[7] The Ottomans encouraged formation of private stud farms in order to ensure a supply of cavalry horses.[162]
During the Umayyad campaigns in India, Muhammad ibn Qasim has brought cavalry of 6000 riding fine Arabian Horses.[163] Since then, exports of horses via the maritime routes through the Persian Gulf, supplied mainly from Arabian peninsula and southern Iran has flowed through India.[164] Since then, the Muslim regimes in India has undergoing extensive cavalry army building which revolved around the Arabian horse, such as Delhi Sultanate,[129] and also the Mughal empire,[165] as it is attested further by the period of Mughal of the 16th to 17th century, when horses were imported from the countries of Arabia, Iran, Turkey and Central Asia to India.[166]
the Bhimthadi horse, or Deccani horse breed, gets its name from the vast Deccan Plateau in India. A major trade in Arabian horse breeds in the ports of Deccan began after the Bahamani Sultanate revolted against the Delhi Sultanate.[167] The Bhimthadi breed was developed in Pune district in 17th and 18th centuries during the Maratha rule by crossing Arabian and Turkic breeds with local ponies.[168][169]
Arabian horses were classified based on their geographical provenance by their bedouin masters, such as Hejaz, Najd, Yemen, Bilād al‑Shām, Jezirah, or Iraq breed as example.[97]
The Najd breed were somehow found their prominence both in warfare and cultural heritage in accordance with the rise of their master's regime, House of Saud and Wahhabism religious movement which spanned from the time of Wahhabi War on early 18th AD century, towards the aftermath of World War I.[170] During Unification of Saudi Arabia war, high ranked Arabian peninsula desert communities such as Sharif of Mecca and the first Saudi Emirate put emphasis on their Arabian horse breedings, in well documented records from Carl Raswan and other desert researchers.[170]
In modern era, royal family from Kingdom of Saud also known for their love for breeding horses and spent expenses for such effort.[171]
The profound tradition of Arabian horse breeding exaltation by early caliphate soldiers even became a basis for scholars of later era. Muslim jurists who codified Islamic law from the mid‑eighth century to strongly connect the horse with Jihad, as They especially stated that it should receive shares in the plunder: two parts of the fourth‑fifths share by Maliki, Shafiʽi school and Hanbali, while one for Abū Ḥanīfa.[97] Accordingl, there are belief in Islam about the Arabian horses which found in Hadith that an Arabian breeds were praying for their owners to God two times a day.[172]
Shafi'i jurist, Al-Mawardi, to establish the ruling of regular military share that the owner of noble purebreed Arabian(al‑khayl al‑ʿitāq) should be rewarded a share of booty three times of regular infantry soldiers, while owners of inferior mixed breeds received only twice infantry soldiers' share.[5] Al-Mawardi seems based his ruling from hadith tradition from companion of the prophet named Abd Allah ibn Amr ibn al-As.[97] While Ahmad ibn Hanbal ruled that "a mixed‑breed birdhawn (al‑birdhawn al‑hajīn) should be given the half share of the noble Arabian [horse] (al‑ʿarabī al‑ʿatīq). Henceforth, the rider (fāris) of the birdhawn should be given two shares whereas the rider of the noble Arabian horse should be given three shares"[97] The related tradition of cavalry spoils privilege from Miqdad ibn Aswad[Notes 12] and Zubayr ibn al-Awwam privileged share of five times that of normal soldiers by the ruling that Zubayr were owner of warhorse and also a relative of Muhammad were discussed by modern Salafi scholars as valid rules based on those hadiths.[Notes 13]
During the Second Fitna, Najdat controlled Yamama in central Arabia, whereas Azariqa controlled Fars and Kirman in southern Persia.
Chroniclers recorded Kharijites as among fiercest and most zealous element within caliphate cavalry hailed from the Bedouin tribes of Arabs[2] and Berbers,[175][Notes 14] that will later revolt against their own caliphate.[128] 8th century chronicler, Al-Jahiz noted Kharijites horsemen ferocity, who spent parts of their early career in Kufa as Rashidun garrison troop during the Muslim conquest of Persia.[177]
The Kharijites were feared for their powerful cavalry charge with their lances which could break any defensive line, and almost never lose when pitted against equal number of opponents.[2] This claim also supported by Akbar Shah Khan Najibabadi, who has given measure that a valiant Kharijite army sometimes could even defeat an opponent whose number were ten times or twenty times bigger than them.[178] The testament Kharijites prowess are when the Kharijites quietists faction[Notes 15] led by Abu Bilal Mirdas,[Notes 16]
who hailed from Tamim tribe decimated the 2,000 Umayyad force from Basra under Aslam ibn Zur'a al-Kilabi, with only forty men in the encounter at the village of Asak near Ramhurmuz.[181][182][183]
Meanwhile, Al-Jahiz also pointed out Kharijites steeds' speed could not intercepted by most rival cavalrymen in medieval era, save for the Turkish Mamluks,[2] As Tabari recorded the stamina and nimbleness of Kharijites, where they will even retreat long time, as it takes early morning until time for Salah prayer for Abu al-Rawwagh, caliphate commander, to pursue them without breaking down.[184]
Furthermore, legendary perseverance of the Kharijites in history were recorded several times in the medieval chronicles, such as when Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam, member of Kharijite assassin who murdered Ali, did not flinch in pain or shown fear when his arms, legs, and eyes mutilated by Ali sons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn ibn Ali, before being executed. Ibn Muljam only shown fear when it is his tongue are about cut, due to his reason that if his tongue were cut, he cannot pray with his mouth again before executed.[185][186] or when the Ibadi Rustamid warriors under Abd al-Wahhab ibn Abd al-Rahman are said never flinched against hails of enemy arrows, and even laughed when arrows stuck on their bodies.
According to Al-Shahrastani, an 11th AD century Shafiite scholar, the proto Kharijite group were called al-Muhakkima al-Ula.[187] they were rooted in the Muslim warriors existed in the times of Muhammad.[21] the al-Muhakkima al-Ula group were led by a figure named Dhu al-Khuwaishirah at-Tamimi,[188] more famously known as Hurqus ibn Zuhayr as-Sa'di, a Tamim tribe chieftain, veteran of the Battle of Hunayn and first generation Kharijites who protested the war spoils distribution.[21][22] Hurqus were recorded being prophesied by a Hadith from Muhammad that he will revolt against Caliphate later.[189]
At first, Hosts of Hurqus were among those who participated in the Muslim conquest of Persia led by Arfajah, Rashidun general who commands the army and navy in Iraq. During Conquest of Khuzestan, Hurqus defeated Hormuzan in 638 at Ahvaz (known as Hormizd-Ardashir in modern era) to subdue the city.[190] However, later during the reign of Uthman, Hurqus was one of the ringleaders from Basra that conspired to assassinate Uthman.[189] They are the soldiers of Ali during the battle of Siffin, who later rebelled towards the Caliphate of Ali and planned their rebellion in the village of Haruri.[187] Despite being suppressed by Ali, remnants of Hurqus group of Muhakkima al-Ula or the Haruriyya proto-Kharijites has survived and would later influenced the splinter sects of Azariqa, Sufriyyah, Ibadiyyah, Yazidiyyah, Maimuniyyah, Ajaridah, al-Baihasiyyah, and the Najdat radical sects.[187][Notes 17] These violent warrior sects would plague the entire history of Rashidun Caliphate, Umayyad, and Abbasid with endemic rebellions.
The host of Hurqus also contained another troublesome Kharijite embryos that also came to Iraq under Arfajah were the ones that hail from Bajila tribe,[23] Notable seditionist warriors from this tribe were Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi, who participated in the early conquests of Persia under Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas.[24] and later joined the hosts of Hurqus against caliphate of Ali in the battle of Nahrawan.[128]
Scholars evaluations about Kharijites
According to Shafiite scholar Abdul Qahir ibn Thahir Bin Muhammad Al Baghdadi in his book of encyclopedia of astray sect within Islam, al-Farq bain al-Firaq, The Azariqa were the most strongest faction with biggest followers.[187] They are the first target by Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr to be suppressed, who sent Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra for the operation.[187] Despite their military strength and fanatical zealotry, the Azariq followers were superficially prone to disunity and Divide and rule strategy launched by Muhallab, who acknowledged of the shallowness of the Azariqa Jihad concept when faced by Muhallab own jurists, engaging some religious debate towards some of their key members of the Kharijites regarding the flaw of their Islamic practice and Jihad, thus enticed most of them to indirectly serving Muhallab by striking their own allies.[187] This fatal flaw were, according to Akbar Shah Najibabadi, the reason why Muhallab never lose his battle against the fearsome Kharijites, while seven of Muhallab sons also shown exemplarly success during anti-Kharijite operations.[178]
Dr. Adam Ali M.A.PhD. postulated that Al-Jahiz's assessment of the military quality of Kharijites are synonymous with the regular Arab cavalry in general term of speed and charging maneuver.[2] In fact, ʿAbd al-Malik ibn Ḥabīb, a jurist and historian in the 9th century described the Berber Kharijites as a mirror match for the Caliphate army, as they are resembling the Arabic caliphate martial tradition, except for the loyalty to authority.[175] Ibn Nujaym al-Hanafi, Hanafi scholar, outlined his evaluation about Kharijites: "... kharijites are a folk possessing strength and zealotry, who revolt against the government due to a self-styled interpretation. They believe that government is upon falsehood, disbelief or disobedience that necessitates it being fought against, and they declare lawful the blood and wealth of the Muslims...”.[128]
Scholars of later such as Al-Dhahabi, Abu Dawud al-SijistaniMuhammad ibn al-Uthaymeen, and Majd ad-Dīn Ibn Athir era has observed the historical influence of Dhu al-Khuwaishirah Hurqus at-Tamimi and Abu Bilal Mirdas at-Tamimi on their commentary notes as a warning against the danger of Khawarij, even when they are just criticizing the superiors in public and not openly rebelled.[180][179]
^Waqidi recorded that around 5,000 Sahabah were fallen during this battle.[16]
^The first version narrated the siege of Bahnasa were led by Khalid ibn al-Walid, who also brought an ex Sassanid Marzban and his 2,000 Persian convert soldiers in this campaign. The Persian Marzban suggested to Khalid to form a suicide squad who will carry a wooden box filled with mixture of sulphur and oil and placing it at the gates, ignited it and blasting the gates (or melting the iron gate, according to the original translation), allowing the Muslim army to enter the city.[18][19]
^The second version were the Muslim army led by Qays ibn Harith without much details of how the Muslims managed to subdue the city. This source said that Qays ibn Harith name were used temporarily to rename Oxyrhynchus for while to honor his deeds in this campaign, before being renamed to be al-Bahnasa.[20]
^The nobility of the Nomad Arabs were based on tribal militaristic meritocracy and genealogical (both their own and their horses') supremacy, according to Elizabeth E. Bacon[28]
^Alofs's claims were based from medieval sources such as Strategikon, History of Tabari, and others.[29]
^Baghawi transmit the long narrative chains which came from Dhiraar himself which recorded by Al-Tabarani. however Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani rejected the authenticity of the dialogue contained in the narration, although he did not criticize regarding the case that Dhiraar's possession of thousand camels which came in the background of the dialogue narration[86]
^The nobility of the Nomad Arabs were based on tribal militaristic meritocracy and genealogical (both their own and their horses') supremacy, according to Elizabeth E. Bacon[28]
^The derived narrations from Amr ibn al As seems original text from him which preserved by Ibn Abd al-Hakam chains of narrator source[99]
^Professor Ross Burns stated in his book, Damascus, A History, that the arduous march of Khalid from Iraq to Syria lasted eighteen days, not six days, as the other historians mentioned.[104]
^The derived narrations from Amr ibn al As were attributed to the traditions of Ibn Abd al-Hakam chains of narrators[99]
^"People of the lance" as quoted by Elizabeth E. Bacon[123]
^The hadith were included in record of Ibn Manzur record of Miqdad ibn Aswad biography in his book, brief history of Damascus[173]
^Transmitted by Al-Daraqutni were observed and discussed by contemporary scholars of Islam particularly Salafist for the ruling from Umar were naturally relevant with Al-Anfal verse 41 "And know that anything you obtain of war booty - then indeed, for Allah is one fifth of it and for the Messenger and for [his] near relatives;"[Quran8:41 (Translated by Saheeh International)], as the modern salafist borrowed the interpretation of the verse from Ibn Kathir and Al-Baghawi, that Zubayr privilege were valid as he still counted as blood relative of Muhammad through az-Zubayr mother, so aside from the three parts which usually given to cavalry, two more parts of spoils were given to Zubayr for his blood relation with the prophet.[174]
^The egalitarian Kharijite doctrine brought by the Sufrite preachers were indeed also found homage to the flocks of Berber soldiers due to their largely unequal treatment under caliphate[176]
^These faction according to Akbar Shah were groups that living peacefully in the soils of Iran province, who became awake and active after the decline of Abdullah ibn Zubayr power and the provocation of the Umayyad propagandists in Iran against Abdullah ibn Zubayr.[178]
^Abu Bilal Mirdas were known by Muslim historians during one of the sermon by Abdallah ibn Amir, Amir or governor of Iraq, Abu Bilal openly criticizing the governor for his garment: "Look at our Amir wearing clothes of wickedness!", this prompted So Abu Bakrah Muhammad ibn Bashar Bindar, a Tabi'un, angrily reprimand Abu Bilal by saying: "Be quiet! I heard the Messenger of Allah saying: "Whoever insults Allah's Sultan on the earth, Allah disgraces him."[179][180]
^Sunni Muslim scholars agreed that Yazidiyyah and Maimuniyyah were the most deviant among all Kharijite sects according to Islamic Iman doctrine, as they have further different concept of prophet in Islam and Qur'an. Thus, according to Prof. Dr. Muhammad Isa al-Hariri were the reasons the jurists and scholars of Islam to brand the Yazidiyyah and Maimuniyyah as true Kafir (Heretic in Islam)[187]
^Waqidi, Muhammad ibn Umar (2008). فتوح الشام (نسخة منقحة) (Revised ed.). p. 48. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
^Al Shinnawy, Mohammed (2019). "مدينة الشهداء خارج حساب محافظ المنيا" [The city of martyrs is outside the account of the governor of Minya]. Shada al-'Arab. Shada al-'Arab. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
^ abMuhammad Al-Harafi, Salamah (2011). Buku Pintar Sejarah & Peradaban Islam(ebook) (in Indonesian) (first ed.). Cairo, Egypt; Cipinang Muara, East Jakarta, Indonesia: Maktabah ad Diniyyahl; Pustaka al-Kautsar. pp. 544–545. ISBN9789795927532. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
^A. Gabriel, Richard (2014). "Arab warfare". Muhammad: Islam's First Great General (Biography, Autobiography). University of Oklahoma Press. p. 31. ISBN9780806182506. Retrieved 17 January 2022. By the Roman and Persian periods the typical Arab sword had become a long straight heavy weapon made of iron.20 By Muhammad's day these clumsy weapons had ...
^ abJam'a, Husayn. "عمرو بن معد يكرب" [Amr ibn Ma'di-Yakrib]. Arabic Encyclopedia (in Arabic). Archived from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2022. - Abu Al-Faraj Al-Isfahani, Al-Aghani (The Heritage Revival House, Beirut, d.T). - Ibn Qutayba, Poetry and Poets, investigated by Ahmed Muhammad Shaker (Dar Al Maaref, Egypt 1966 AD). - Amr bin Maadi Karb, his poetry, collected by Al-Tarabishi (The Arabic Language Academy, Damascus 1985). - Omar Farroukh, History of Arabic Literature (Dar Al-Ilm for Millions, Beirut, 1978).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^Q. Fatimi, S. (1964). "Malaysian Weapons in Arabic Literature: A Glimpse of Early Trade in the Indian Ocean". Islamic Studies. 3 (2). Science of Religion, Index Islamicus, Public Affairs Information Service (PAIS), Internationale Bibliographie der Rezensionen (IBR), Muslim World Book Review, Middle East Journal, ATLA Religion Database, Religion Index One (RIO) and Index to Book Reviews in Religion (IBRR).: 212–214. ISSN0578-8072. JSTOR20832742. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
^Hüseyin GÖKALP 2021, p. 81; Prepare against them what you ˹believers˺ can of ˹military˺ power and cavalry to deter Allah's enemies and your enemies as well as other enemies unknown to you but known to Allah. Whatever you spend in the cause of Allah will be paid to you in full and you will not be wronged. al-Anfal, 8/60..
^Ibn Kathir (2012). Amin Qalaji, Dr., Abdul Muti (ed.). جامع المسانيد والسنن الهادي لأقوم سنن 1-18 ج10 [Jami` Al-Masanid and Al-Sunan Al-Hadi to Establish Sunan 1-18 Part 10] (eligion / Islam / General) (in Arabic). Lebanon: Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah دار الكتب العلمية. p. 5368. Retrieved 10 February 2022. مُسْنَدِ عُمَرَ بْنِ الْخَطَّابِ رَضِيَ اللَّهُ عَنْهُ 2 Musnad `Umar b. al-Khattab narrated by Simak; Grade:Lts isnad is Hasan] (Darussalam) Reference: Musnad Ahmad 344 In-book reference : Book 2, Hadith 250
^Hardy, James (2016). "Battle of Yarmouk: An Analysis of Byzantine Military Failure". History Coperative. Retrieved 15 December 2021. In addition, the Arab army was able to use their foot and cavalry archers to great effect, placing them in prepared positions, and were thus able to halt the initial Byzantine advance, John Haldon, Warfare, State, and Society in the Byzantine World: 565-1204. Warfare and History. (London: University College London Press, 1999), 215-216; The skill of the Arab cavalry, particularly the horse archers, also gave the Arab army a distinct advantage in terms of their ability to outmaneuver their Byzantine counterparts. The delay between May and August was disastrous for two reasons; first it provided the Arabs with an invaluable respite to regroup and gather reinforcements. Second, the delay wreaked havoc on the overall moral and discipline of the Byzantine troops; the Armenian contingents in particular grew increasingly agitated and mutinous, Jenkins, Romilly. Byzantium: The Imperial Centuries AD 610-1071. Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987. p 33
^ abcdefghijklmMaqbul Ahmed; A. Z. Iskandar (2001). Y. al-Hassan, Ahmad (ed.). Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences(hardcover) (Islam and science, Medicine -- History -- Islamic countries, Science -- History -- Islamic countries, Technology -- History -- Islamic countries, Arabic language, Arabic literature -- History and criticism, Historiography -- Islamic countries, Islam -- History -- Social aspects, Islam -- Social aspects, Islam and culture, Islam and state, Islamic arts, Islamic civilization, Islamic countries -- Civilization -- History, Islamic learning and scholarship, Islamic philosophy, Islamic sociology, World history). UNESCO Pub. p. 250. ISBN9789231038310. Retrieved 28 February 2022.
^Ibn Abd Rabbih; Roger Allen; Terri DeYoung; Centre for Muslim Contribution to Civilization (2006). Allen, Roger (ed.). The Unique Necklace Volume 1(hardcover) (Arabic language -- Versification, Civilization, Islamic -- Sources -- History, Islamic civilization -- Sources -- History, Arabic literature -- Translations into English -- 750-1258, History, Islamic civilization in literature). Translated by Issa J. Boullata. Garnet Pub. ISBN9781859641835. Retrieved 3 March 2022.
^Al-Dabba, Mahmud (2021). "أبرزهم "السرحان".. تعرف على 16 اسم لخيول الصحابي خالد بن الوليد" [The most prominent of them is “Al-Sarhan” .. Learn 16 names for the horses of the Companion Khaled bin Al-Waleed]. Alkonouz. Alkonouz Arab world horse community site. Retrieved 26 November 2021. The horses of Khalid ibn al-Walid were named huzuma, al bahrah, Sabhah, Sabqa. al-Masrat, wakil, Za'jat. al-'Anaq. as-Sarhan, dawma. Lamaa'. Masnuun. al-'Alawiyya. al-Haq, and Hirm
^Q. Fatimi, S. (1964). "Malaysian Weapons in Arabic Literature: A Glimpse of Early Trade in the Indian Ocean". Islamic Studies. 3 (2). Science of Religion, Index Islamicus, Public Affairs Information Service (PAIS), Internationale Bibliographie der Rezensionen (IBR), Muslim World Book Review, Middle East Journal, ATLA Religion Database, Religion Index One (RIO) and Index to Book Reviews in Religion (IBRR).: 212–214. ISSN0578-8072. JSTOR20832742. Retrieved 4 January 2022.
^Abu Bakr 1985, p. 249, It was narrated by Abdullah ibn Zubayr, his son who witnessed his father praying while fought at the sametime on the top of his camel
^A ḥima (pl. aḥmāʾ; protected or forbidden place) was an area with some vegetation in the desert reserved for the breeding of Arabian horses, that unlike camels, required water and herbaceous vegetation daily. A ḥima was controlled by a certain tribe and access to it was restricted to members of the tribe. The aḥmāʾ first emerged in Najd in the 5th or 6th centuries, and the best known ḥima was the Ḥima Ḍarīyya, according to the historian Irfan Shahîd.[118]
^Al-Rashid 1979, pp. 88–89 Primary sources from Abu Ali al-Hajari's book compilations (3rd AH), Abu Ubaid al-Bakri book: Mu'jam M Ista'jam (5th AH), Al-Samhudi's book Wafa' al-Wafa' bi Akhbar Dar al-Mustafa (6th AH)
^Valera-Lema, Juan. "The Origins of the Lusitano Horse". THE LUSITANO HORSE Horse of the Wind and Pride of Portugal (PhD). Conquistador Magazine. Retrieved 9 December 2021. The leader of this initial invasion was a Moslem Berber named Tariq ibn Ziyad who led 12,000 Saracens (largely Berbers from Algeria and Morocco) across the Strait of Gibraltar into Spain. These people brought some of their native Berber horses with them on the expedition. Although it is not exactly clear how many of the invaders had brought horses with them, one can speculate that because of the difficulties in transportation the number of horses was limited and that most of the Cavalry men obtained their horses from the outstanding Iberian stock existing in the south of the Iberian peninsula. Lady Sylvia Loch states "It is now almost conclusively established that the Barb (or Berber) horse also developed as a breed from primitive Sorraia stock which gradually migrated from Spain and Portugal into North Africa in prehistoric times. Contrary to popular opinion, therefore, the Iberian horse was the likely forefather to the Barb and not vice versaÉ It would be more accurate to say that at the time of the Moorish conquest, Barb blood was reintroduced to the Iberian Peninsula." Regardless of the exact influence of one breed over another, it is evident that the exchange of blood was mutually beneficial and that it produced many similarities between the two breeds, to the point that the modern Barb resembles Iberian stock as well as the criollo horses of South America. In the almost eight hundred years during which Spain and Portugal were in constant war with the Moors, horse and horsemanship had become finely attuned to the war exercises. This superb war horse was the one that the Conquistadors introduced and dispersed throughout the Americas, together with the a la gineta style of riding, which influenced the horse cultures of the Gauchos, Charros and Llaneros.
^Colorado Ranger Horse Association. "CRHA History". CRHA Website. Colorado Ranger Horse Association. Archived from the original on May 13, 2008. Retrieved May 28, 2008.
^Arabian Horse Association. "Quick Facts". Half-Arabian and Anglo-Arabian Registration. Arabian Horse Association. Archived from the original on June 12, 2008. Retrieved May 29, 2008.
^International Quarab Horse Association. "What Is A Quarab?". IQHA Website. International Quarab Horse Association (IQHA). Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved May 29, 2008.
^American Welara Pony Registry. "American Welara Pony Registry". AWPR Website. American Welara Pony Registry (AWPR). Archived from the original on June 3, 2008. Retrieved May 29, 2008.
^Morab Horse Association. "History of the Morab Breed". The Morab Horse Association and Register. Morab Horse Association. Retrieved May 29, 2008.
^ ab"Warrior kings: A look at the history of the Mamluks". The Report – Egypt 2012: The Guide. Oxford Business Group. 2012. pp. 332–334. Archived from the original on 25 September 2020. Retrieved 1 March 2021. The Mamluks, who descended from non-Arab slaves who were naturalised to serve and fight for ruling Arab dynasties, are revered as some of the greatest warriors the world has ever known. Although the word mamluk translates as "one who is owned", the Mamluk soldiers proved otherwise, gaining a powerful military standing in various Muslim societies, particularly in Egypt. They would also go on to hold political power for several centuries during a period known as the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. [...] Before the Mamluks rose to power, there was a long history of slave soldiers in the Middle East, with many recruited into Arab armies by the Abbasid rulers of Baghdad in the ninth century. The tradition was continued by the dynasties that followed them, including the Fatimids and Ayyubids (it was the Fatimids who built the foundations of what is now Islamic Cairo). For centuries, the rulers of the Arab world recruited men from the lands of the Caucasus and Central Asia. It is hard to discern the precise ethnic background of the Mamluks, given that they came from a number of ethnically mixed regions, but most are thought to have been Turkic (mainly Kipchak and Cuman) or from the Caucasus (predominantly Circassian, but also Armenian and Georgian). The Mamluks were recruited forcibly to reinforce the armies of Arab rulers. As outsiders, they had no local loyalties, and would thus fight for whoever owned them, not unlike mercenaries. Furthermore, the Turks and Circassians had a ferocious reputation as warriors. The slaves were either purchased or abducted as boys, around the age of 13, and brought to the cities, most notably to Cairo and its Citadel. Here they would be converted to Islam and would be put through a rigorous military training regime that focused particularly on horsemanship. A code of behaviour not too dissimilar to that of the European knights' Code of Chivalry was also inculcated and was known as Furusiyya. As in many military establishments to this day the authorities sought to instil an esprit de corps and a sense of duty among the young men. The Mamluks would have to live separately from the local populations in their garrisons, which included the Citadel and Rhoda Island, also in Cairo.
^А.Ш.Кадырбаев, Сайф-ад-Дин Хайр-Бек – абхазский "король эмиров" Мамлюкского Египта (1517–1522), "Материалы первой международной научной конференции, посвященной 65-летию В.Г.Ардзинба". Сухум: АбИГИ, 2011, pp. 87–95
^Thomas Philipp, Ulrich Haarmann (eds), The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp. 115–116.
^Jane Hathaway, The Politics of Households in Ottoman Egypt: The Rise of the Qazdaglis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, pp. 103–104.
^ abcStowasser, Karl (1984). "Manners and Customs at the Mamluk Court". Muqarnas. 2 (The Art of the Mamluks). Leiden: Brill Publishers: 13–20. doi:10.2307/1523052. ISSN0732-2992. JSTOR1523052. S2CID191377149. The Mamluk slave warriors, with an empire extending from Libya to the Euphrates, from Cilicia to the Arabian Sea and the Sudan, remained for the next two hundred years the most formidable power of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean – champions of Sunni orthodoxy, guardians of Islam's holy places, their capital, Cairo, the seat of the Sunni caliph and a magnet for scholars, artists, and craftsmen uprooted by the Mongol upheaval in the East or drawn to it from all parts of the Muslim world by its wealth and prestige. Under their rule, Egypt passed through a period of prosperity and brilliance unparalleled since the days of the Ptolemies. [...] They ruled as a militaryaristocracy, aloof and almost totally isolated from the native population, Muslim and non-Muslim alike, and their ranks had to be replenished in each generation through fresh imports of slaves from abroad. Only those who had grown up outside Muslim territory and who entered as slaves in the service either of the sultan himself or of one of the Mamluk emirs were eligible for membership and careers within their closed military caste. The offspring of Mamluks were free-born Muslims and hence excluded from the system: they became the awlād al-nās, the "sons of respectable people", who either fulfilled scribal and administrative functions or served as commanders of the non-Mamluk ḥalqa troops. Some two thousand slaves were imported annually: Qipchaq, Azeris, Uzbec Turks, Mongols, Avars, Circassians, Georgians, Armenians, Greeks, Bulgars, Albanians, Serbs, Hungarians.
^"Relations of the Georgian Mamluks of Egypt with Their Homeland in the Last Decades of the Eighteenth Century". Daniel Crecelius and Gotcha Djaparidze. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 45, No. 3 (2002), pp. 320–341. ISSN0022-4995
^Hathaway, Jane (February 1995). "The Military Household in Ottoman Egypt". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 27 (1): 39–52. doi:10.1017/s0020743800061572. S2CID62834455.
^Walker, Paul E. Exploring an Islamic Empire: Fatimid History and its Sources (London, I. B. Tauris, 2002)
^ abIstván Vásáry (2005) Cuman and Tatars, Cambridge University Press.
^T. Pavlidis, A Concise History of the Middle East, Chapter 11: "Turks and Byzantine Decline". 2011
^Thomas Philipp & Ulrich Haarmann. The Mamluks in Egyptian Politics and Society.
^Ibn Kathir, Abu al Fida; ibn Masʻūd ibnMuḥammad al-Farrā' al-Baghawī, Ḥusayn. "واعلموا أنما غنمتم من شيء فأن لله خمسه وللرسول ولذي القربى واليتامى الآية 41 من سورة الأنفال". surahquran.com (in Arabic). Retrieved 7 December 2021.; Sirah Nabawiyah #61 - Peristiwa Perang Khaybar 2 - Ustadz Dr. Firanda Andirja, M.A. on YouTube; bin Badawi al-Khalafi, Abdul Azhim (24 November 2004). "Kitab Jihad (2)". Almanhaj (in Indonesian). Retrieved 7 December 2021. Setelah itu ghanimah (harta rampasan perang) dibagikan. Empat perlima bagian untuk orang-orang yang berperang, dengan perincian untuk pejalan kaki satu bagian dan untuk pasukan berkuda tiga bagian. Allah berfirman: وَاعْلَمُوا أَنَّمَا غَنِمْتُم مِّن شَيْءٍ فَأَنَّ لِلَّهِ خُمُسَهُ وَلِلرَّسُولِ "Ketahuilah, sesungguhnya apa saja yang dapat kamu peroleh sebagai rampasan perang, maka sesungguhnya seperlima untuk Allah dan untuk Rasul…" [Al-Anfaal: 41] Baca Juga Kitab Jihad (1) Dari Ibnu 'Umar Radhiyallahu 'anhuma, ia berkata: رَأَيْتُ الْمَغَانِمَ تُجَزَّأُ خَمْسَةَ أَجْزَاءٍ، ثُمَّ يُسْهَمُ عَلَيْهَا، فَمَا كَانَ لِرَسُوْلِ اللهِ j فَهُوَ لَهُ، يَتَخَيَّرُ. "Aku melihat harta rampasan dibagi lima bagian, kemudian diberikan kepada yang ikut berperang, adapun yang menjadi bagian Rasulullah Shallallahu 'alaihi wa sallam, maka bagian itu adalah miliknya yang beliau pilih." Dan dari beliau juga, bahwasanya Rasulullah Shallallahu 'alaihi wa sallam membagi harta rampasan perang Khaibar, untuk penunggang kuda tiga bagian dan untuk kudanya dua bagian serta untuk pejalan kaki satu bagian; Shahih: Shahiih al-Jaami'ish Shaghiir (no. 2303), Sunan Ibni Majah (II/952, no. 2853), ini adalah lafazh dalam riwayat beliau, dan yang meriwayatkan seperti ini tanpa menyebutkan 'khaibar', Shahiih al-Bukhari (VI/67, no. 2863), Shahiih Muslim (III/1383, no. 1762), Sunan Abi Dawud (VII/404, no. 2716)
^ abas-Sidawy, Abu Ubaidah Yusuf (2018). "Mencela Pemimpin, Ciri Khas Kelompok Khawarij"(Article). Muslim.or.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 18 December 2021. Fatawa Ulama Al-Akabir hal. 94-96 dan Madarik An Nadhar hal. 272-275
Abu Bakr, Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Mundhir (1985). الأوسط في السنن والإجماع والقياس - ج 5 [mesial in Traditions, consensus, and analogy/al'awsat fi al sunan wa al Ijma wa al qias] (1 ed.). IslamKotob. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
bin Husain Abu Lauz, Abu Anas Ali (2004). "Fenomena Bom Bunuh Diri". Almanhaj. p. narrated by Al-Qurtubi. Retrieved 25 November 2021. [Disalin dari majalah As-Sunnah Edisi Khusus/Tahun VIII/1425H/2004M. Diterbitkan Yayasan Lajnah Istiqomah Surakarta, Jl. Solo – Purwodadi Km.8 Selokaton Gondangrejo Solo 57183 Telp. 0271-858197 Fax 0271-858196.Kontak Pemasaran 085290093792, 08121533647, 081575792961, Redaksi 08122589079]
Irham Zuhdi, Masturi; Abidun, M. (2015). Ensiklopedi Aliran dan Madzhab Di Dunia Islam [Encyclopedia of sects and Schools in the Islamic World; Arabic:Silsilah al-mawsu'at islamiyahmutakhasshihah; mausu'ah al-firad wa al-madzhahib fi al-alam al-islam] (in Indonesian). Pustaka al Kautsar; Tim Riset Majelis Tinggi Urusan Islam Mesir (Egyptian Islamic Affairs High Council Research Team). pp. 399–423. ISBN978979-5926948. Retrieved 8 December 2021.
Al-Khudair, Abdul Karim bin Abdullah (2015). "الشمائل النبوية (17)" [Prophetic merits (17)]. Sheykh-el-Khudeyr. Department of Sunnah and its Sciences, Faculty of Theology, Imam Muhammad bin Saud University in Riyadh. Retrieved 7 November 2021.
Olsen, Sandra; Khan, Majeed; Bryant, Richard T.; Beard, Chris (2020). "Bi'r Hima". Arabian Rock Art Heritage The Application of Advanced Imaging Technology to Saudi Arabian Rock Art. The Arabian Rock Art Heritage Project. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
Ahmad Salamah, Muhammad (1993). الخيل والفروسية [horse and equestrian] (in Arabic). دار الفكر العربى للطباعة والنشر (Dar al Fikr al 'Arb Printing and Publishing ). ISBN978-977-10-2060-8. Retrieved 21 January 2022. the position and history of the horse and horsemanship in pre-Islamic and Islamic Arab culture, largely as portrayed through Arabic poetry and other literature.
Ini adalah nama Batak Toba, marganya adalah Nababan. Untuk kegunaan lain, lihat Adolf Hitler. Hitler NababanS.H.Anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah KarawangMasa jabatan5 Agustus 2014 – 5 Agustus 2019Grup parlemenPartai DemokratDaerah pemilihanKarawang 1Mayoritas6,278 suara Informasi pribadiLahir1964 atau 1965 (usia 56 atau 57)Aceh, IndonesiaPartai politikPartai DemokratAfiliasi politiklainnyaPartai Kasih Demokrasi Indonesia (sebelum 2013)Sunting kotak info • L • B ...
Tanda kepangkatan Kepolisian Republik adalah daftar tanda pangkat dan jenjang kepangkatan yang digunakan oleh Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia. Sejak 1 Januari 2001, Kepolisian Negara Republik Indonesia dipisahkan dari TNI dan menggunakan tanda kepangkatan tersendiri.[1] Perubahan tersebut berdasar pada surat keputusan Kapolri No. Pol: Skep/1259/X/2000, tertanggal 3 Oktober 2000.[2] Tanda Kepangkatan POLRI Perwira Polri Perwira Tinggi Perwira Tinggi sering juga disingkat m...
Aeropuerto Internacional Xoxocotlán IATA: OAX OACI: MMOX FAA: LocalizaciónUbicación Oaxaca de Juárez, MéxicoElevación 1,521Sirve a OaxacaDetalles del aeropuertoTipo Público/MilitarOperador Grupo Aeroportuario del SuresteServicios y conexionesHub para AerotucánBase para VolarisEstadísticas (2022)Movimiento de pasajeros 17° (3)Pistas DirecciónLargoSuperficie01/192,450AsfaltoMapa OAX Situación del aeropuerto en OaxacaSitio web www.asur.com.mx/Oaxaca Información de salidas Informaci...
Filipino TV series or program The Greatest LoveTitle cardGenre Romance Melodrama Family Developed byGinny Monteagudo-OcampoWritten by Ruby Leah Castro-Villanueva Jerry Gracio Jaja Amarillo Alpha Fortun Carlo Katigbak Directed by Jeffrey R. Jeturian Mervyn B. Brondial Dado C. Lumibao Paco Sta. Maria Creative directorRicky LeeStarring Sylvia Sanchez Nonie Buencamino Andi Eigenmann Dimples Romana Arron Villaflor Matt Evans Joshua Garcia Opening themeThe Greatest Love of Allby Sharon CunetaC...
AltaiteSilvery veins and flecks of altaite throughout the matrix from the Hilltop Mine, Organ District, Doña Ana County, New Mexico (size: 3.5 x 2.9 x 1.9 cm)GeneralCategoryTelluride mineralFormula(repeating unit)PbTeIMA symbolAlt[1]Strunz classification2.CD.10Crystal systemIsometricCrystal classHexoctahedral (m3m) H-M symbol: (4/m 3 2/m)Space groupFm3mIdentificationFormula mass334.8 g/molColortin white to yellowish white; tarnishing to bronze yellowCrystal habitinclude cubic and oct...
This article is about the town. For other uses, see Peddapalli (disambiguation). Town & District Headquarter in Telangana, IndiaPeddapalli పెద్దపల్లిTown & District HeadquarterNickname: Singareni DistrictPeddapalliLocation in Telangana, IndiaShow map of TelanganaPeddapalliPeddapalli (India)Show map of IndiaCoordinates: 18°36′58″N 79°23′00″E / 18.6162°N 79.3832°E / 18.6162; 79.3832Country IndiaStateTelanganaDistrictPedda...
American actor (1934–2012) Al Freeman Jr.Freeman in 1975BornAlbert Cornelius Freeman Jr.(1934-03-21)March 21, 1934San Antonio, Texas, U.S.DiedAugust 9, 2012(2012-08-09) (aged 78)Washington, D.C., U.S.Years active1958–2004Spouse Sevara E. Clemon (m. 1960) Albert Cornelius Freeman Jr. (March 21, 1934 – August 9, 2012) was an American actor, director, and educator. A life member of The Actors Studio,[1] Freeman appeared in a wide...
2002 studio album by Darren HayesSpinStudio album by Darren HayesReleased18 March 2002Recorded2001GenrePopLength62:11LabelColumbiaProducerWalter AfanasieffDarren Hayes chronology Spin(2002) The Tension and the Spark(2004) Singles from Spin InsatiableReleased: 14 January 2002 Strange RelationshipReleased: 27 June 2002 I Miss YouReleased: 4 November 2002 Crush (1980 Me)Released: 7 April 2003 Professional ratingsReview scoresSourceRatingAllMusic[1]The Tribune[2] Spin is t...
DNA repair process Base excision repairIdentifiersAliasesExternal IDsGeneCards: [1] OrthologsSpeciesHumanMouseEntrezn/an/aEnsembln/an/aUniProtnan/aRefSeq (mRNA)n/an/aRefSeq (protein)n/an/aLocation (UCSC)n/an/aPubMed searchn/an/aWikidataView/Edit Human Basic steps of base excision repair Base excision repair (BER) is a cellular mechanism, studied in the fields of biochemistry and genetics, that repairs damaged DNA throughout the cell cycle. It is responsible primarily for removing small, non-h...
Restaurant in London, EnglandSan LorenzoLocation in Kensington, LondonRestaurant informationEstablished1963Owner(s)Mara and Lorenzo BerniFood typeItalian cuisineStreet address22 Beauchamp Place, KnightsbridgeCityLondonCountryUnited KingdomCoordinates51°29′50″N 0°9′51″W / 51.49722°N 0.16417°W / 51.49722; -0.16417 San Lorenzo, Beauchamp Place, London (2016) San Lorenzo (formally La Bottega Del San Lorenzo) is an upmarket restaurant located at 22 Beauchamp Pla...
Species of gastropod Alvania aspera Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Mollusca Class: Gastropoda Subclass: Caenogastropoda Order: Littorinimorpha Family: Rissoidae Genus: Alvania Species: A. aspera Binomial name Alvania aspera(Philippi, 1844) Alvania aspera is a species of minute sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusc or micromollusk in the family Rissoidae.[1] Description This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (August 2010) Distri...
Private commercial bank Washington Trust BankFormerlyWashington Trust Company (1902-1951)TypePrivateFounded1902; 121 years ago (1902) in Spokane, Washington, U.S.FoundersJ. Grier Long Martin B. Connelly R.L.WebsterHeadquarters717 W Sprague Ave, Spokane Washington, U.S.Key peoplePeter Q. Stanton (Chairman & CEO)John E. (Jack) Heath, III (President & COO) ProductsPersonal Banking, Commercial Banking, Private Banking, Home Loans, Wealth Management, Wealth Advisory, Inve...
For other uses, see Follow through (disambiguation). 2005 single by Gavin DeGrawFollow ThroughSingle by Gavin DeGrawfrom the album Chariot ReleasedNovember 17, 2005GenreSoft rockLength3:59LabelJSongwriter(s)Gavin DeGrawGavin DeGraw singles chronology Chariot (2005) Follow Through (2005) Just Friends (2006) Follow Through is a single by Gavin DeGraw released in 2005. It is featured on his 2003 album, Chariot. The song has been featured on several television shows, including One Tree Hill and S...
Questa voce o sezione sull'argomento sovrani non cita le fonti necessarie o quelle presenti sono insufficienti. Puoi migliorare questa voce aggiungendo citazioni da fonti attendibili secondo le linee guida sull'uso delle fonti. Segui i suggerimenti del progetto di riferimento. Ibrahim ISultano dell'Impero ottomanoIn carica9 febbraio 1640 –8 agosto 1648 PredecessoreMurad IV SuccessoreMehmed IV TrattamentoPadiscià Altri titoliCaliffo dell’IslamAmir al-Mu'mininCustode delle ...
Begin AgainTheatrical release posterSutradaraJohn CarneyProduser Anthony Bregman Tobin Armbrust Judd Apatow Ditulis olehJohn CarneyPemeran Keira Knightley Mark Ruffalo Hailee Steinfeld Adam Levine James Corden Yasiin Bey CeeLo Green Catherine Keener Penata musikGregg AlexanderSinematograferYaron OrbachPenyuntingAndrew MarcusPerusahaanproduksi Sycamore Pictures Exclusive Media Likely Story Apatow Productions DistributorThe Weinstein CompanyTanggal rilis 07 September 2013 (2013-09-07...
Town in Orenburg Oblast, Russia Town in Orenburg Oblast, RussiaSol-Iletsk Соль-ИлецкTown[1] FlagCoat of armsLocation of Sol-Iletsk Sol-IletskLocation of Sol-IletskShow map of RussiaSol-IletskSol-Iletsk (Orenburg Oblast)Show map of Orenburg OblastCoordinates: 51°10′N 55°00′E / 51.167°N 55.000°E / 51.167; 55.000CountryRussiaFederal subjectOrenburg Oblast[1]Founded17th centuryElevation125 m (410 ft)Population (2010 Cens...
Head monastery of the Carthusian order For other uses, see Chartreuse. You can help expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (June 2018) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the French article. Machine translation, like DeepL or Google Translate, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than...
Special Activities CenterStemma del Directorate of Operations (CIA) SiglaSAC Stato Stati Uniti Tipooperazioni paramilitarioperazioni coperte Istituito1995 Modifica dati su Wikidata · Manuale Lo Special Activities Center (SAC) è una divisione della CIA preposta alle operazioni coperte e alle operazioni paramilitari.[1][2][3] L'unità si chiamava Special Activities Division (SAD) fino al 2016.[4] Nel SAC ci sono due gruppi separati: SAC/SOG (Special O...
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.svg)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
.png)
_route_to_Syria.PNG)
.jpg)
.jpeg)
